THE 
PHYSICIAN’S CHEMISTRY. 
BY 
CLIFFORD MITCHELL, A. B. (Harvard), M. D. 
in 
Atjthob of “Student’s Manual of Ueinaby Analysis,"’ 
“Clinical Significance of the Ubine,” 
“ Pbactitioneb’s Guide in 
Ubinalysis.” 
CHICAGO 
GROSS & DELBRIDGE 
1886 COPYRIGHTED. 
GROSS & DELBRIDGE. 
1886. 
PRESS OF ROBT. C. BUTZOW, 
CHICAGO. PREFACE. 
The aim of this book is to give much information in as small 
space as possible. I have tried to simplify Chemical Theory so 
that the beginner can learn to read and write formulae without a 
teacher. Barker, Engel, Simon, and Ralfe, have been, among 
others, my authorities on Inorganic and Organic Chemistry. 
The chapter on Urinalysis is the result of my own experience as 
a teacher; much attention is given in this part of the book to 
causes of confusion and error likely to arise in testing urine. In 
Toxicology, Tanner, Woodman and Tidy, and Wormley, have 
been consulted among many others. Notes on cases of poison- 
ing have been given me by Prof. J. H. Buffum, Prof. A. G. 
Beebe, Prof. N. B. Delamater, Prof. J. R. Kippax, Prof. J. W. 
Streeter and Prof. A. W. Woodward; I am also indebted for 
notes on hospital cases to Drs. Percy Bryant and F. R. Day. Dr. 
Bryant has kindly furnished me with reports of many interesting 
cases. Drs. M. J. Bliem, W. B. Clarke, F. H. Foster, and Chas. 
Gatchell, have also communicated valuable information. Prof. 
Delamater has contributed two pages on the use of electricity in 
cases of poisoning. 
The author must apologize for the size of the Appendix ; the 
prin ting of the last half of the book was delayed greatly by fire 
in the printing-house, so that many new and important items 
coming up in the meantime could not appear in the book 
proper. I am greatly indebted to the learning and experience 
of Mr. J. M. Baker, of Chicago, for hints regarding many new 
pharmaceutical compounds; such as urethan, iodol, pyridine, 
etc.; notes on which will be found in the Appendix. My author- 
ities in homoeopathic pharmacy are the American Homoeopathic 
Pharmacopoea and the American Homoeopathic Dispensatory. 
CLIFFORD MITCHELL. 
Chicago, February, 1886. CONTENTS. 
PART I. 
THEOBY. 
Prtge. 
Atom, molecule 9 
Elements 10 
Writing and reading for- 
mulae 11-19 
PART II. 
INOBGANIO, OBGANIO, UBINALYSIS. 
Inorganic- 
Elements 20-31 
Compounds of non-met- 
als 32-40 
Compounds of metals. . 41-62 
Organic— 
Hydrocarbons 63, 64 
Alcohols 64-66 
Sugars 67, 68 
Phenols, thymols, etc. 69, 70 
Acids and salts 70-75 
Aldehydes 75 
Ethers 76 
Amines, amides 78 
Alkalamides 79 
Alkaloids 80-84 
Proteids 85-87 
Animal chemistry— 
Blood 88-92 
Chyle 92 
Lymph 92 
Milk 93, 94 
Saliva 95 
Gastric juice 96 
Intestinal juices 97 
Degenerations, calculi, 
etc 99-110 
Urinalysis 111-125 
Objections and precau- 
tions 115-120 
Bedside testing 120-124 
Quantitative estimates, 
124, 125 
PART III. 
TOXICOLOGY. 
General remarks 126-141 
Poisoning by arsenic. .142-153 
opium 153-160 
strychnine 160-166 
acids and alkalies. ..167-172 
salts, etc 173-175 
iodine, phosphoros, mer 
cuiy, etc 176-179 
anaesthetics 180 
inebriants 181-184 
delirants 185 
atropine 187-194 
convulsants 195 
paralysants 196 
aconite 196-201 
prussic acid 201-204 
depressants 205-207 
asphyxiants 208, 209 
Miscellaneous —Sewer-gas, 
gelsemium 209-215 
Use of electricity 216-218 
Supplement to Toxicology 
—Cases reported by Drs. 
Beebe, Bliem, Bryant, 
Day, etc 219-228* 
APPENDIX. 
Table of elements, etc.229-232 
Tests for drinking water. . 235 
Mineral waters 237, 240 
Methods of manufacture.. 240 
Equations (inorganic).... 240 
Water of crystallization.. 243 
Specific gravities 244 
Solubilities 247 
Organic theory 249-255 
Molecular weights of or- 
ganic substances 256 
Equations (organic) 257 
Formulae (organic) 258 
Reactions of oils,sugars,260-261 
Foods 261-267 
Alkaloids 267 
Glucosides, resinoids 269 
Cocaine hydrochloride.... 271 
Miscellaneous 273-280 
New remedies 281-283 
Disinfectants 283-286 
Metric system 286-288 
Thermometry 288-290 THEORY OF IHORGARIC 
CHEMISTRY. 
Pabt I. 
1. Divisions of Matter: Three divisions of matter 
are recognized in science: masses, molecules and atoms. 
2. A mass of matter is any portion of matter apprecia- 
ble by the senses. 
3. A molecule is the smallest particle of matter into 
which a body can be divided without losing its identity. 
4. An atom is the still smaller particle produced by 
the division of a molecule. 
Examples: The sun and the sand-grain are equally 
masses of matter. The smallest particles of sugar or of 
salt which can exhibit the properties of these substances, 
respectively, are molecules of sugar or of salt. The still 
more minute particles of carbon, of hydrogen, and of 
oxygen, which make up the molecule of sugar, or those 
of chlorine and of sodium which compose the molecule of 
salt, are atoms. (Barker.) 
A mass of matter is made up of molecules, and a 
molecule itself is composed of atoms. 8 
CONDENSED CHEMISTRY. 
5. A chemical element is a substance which has never 
been found to contain more than one kind of atoms; as, 
for example, iron. 
6. The more important elementary substances with 
symbols, are: 
Hydrogen, H; fluorine, F; chlorine, Cl; bromine, Br; 
iodine, I; oxygen, O; sulphur, S; nitrogen, N; phos- 
phorus, P; arsenic, As; antimony (Stibium), Sb; bis- 
muth, Bi; boron, B; carbon, C; silicon, Si; tin (Stan- 
num), Sn; chromium, Cr; manganese, Mn; iron (Ferrum), 
Fe; platinum, Pt; gold (Aurum), Au; mercury (Hy- 
drargyrum), Hg; copper (Cuprum), Cu; lead (Plumbum), 
Pb; silver (Argentum), Ag; zinc, Zn; aluminum, Al; 
calcium, Ca; barium, Ba; sodium (Natrium), Na; po- 
tassium (Kalium), K; magnesium, Mg. 
7. The above elements may be classified electro-chem- 
ically as follows: The metals, gold, platinum, mercury, 
silver, copper, bismuth, tin, lead, iron, zinc, manganese, 
aluminum, magnesium, calcium, barium, sodium and 
potassium are electro-positive in reference to the non- 
metals or metalloids, oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen, fluorine, 
chlorine, bromine, iodine, phosphorus, arsenic, boron, 
carbon, antimony, silicon and hydrogen. 
-8. The elements may be classified as regards their 
equivalence or combining power with reference to hydro- 
gen as follows: H, FI, Cl, Br, I, Na, K, Ag are monads, 
i. e., each atom of them combines with, or exchanges for, 
just one atom of hydrogen; O, S, Ca, Ba, Mg, Zn, Pb, 
Hg, Cu are dyads, i. e., combine with, or exchange for, 
two atoms of hydrogen; Au, As, Sb, P, N, B, Bi, are 
triads, i. e., with three; C, Si, Sn, Pt, are tetrads, i. e., 
with four; Cr, Fe, Mn are hexads, i. e., with six. 
9. To denote equivalence, as, for example, of carbon, 
II 
place Roman numerals above symbol} thus C. CONDENSED CHEMISTRY. 
9 
10. To denote the number of atoms in an elemental 
molecule write Arabic figure to the lower right-hand 
corner of symbol. Thus H2 means two atoms of hydro- 
gen. 
11. To represent a number of molecules: Inclose 
symbols in brackets with numeral outside below to right, 
thus (H2)6 means six molecules of hydrogen, each of 
which is composed of two atoms. Sometimes the num- 
ber is placed before and on a line with the symbol or 
formula, thus 6HC1 instead of (HC1)6. 
12. A binary compound is one whose molecule is com- 
posed of two different kinds of atoms, as common salt, 
NaCl. 
13. To name binaries, place the name of the positive 
constituent first and then the name of the negative, 
changing termination of latter to ide. 
14. To name, for instance, a compound of zinc and 
phosphorus: Referring to paragraph 7, we find zinc to 
be positive as regards phosphorus, which is negative; 
therefore the name of the compound is zinc phosphide, 
the termination of phosphorus, the negative one of the 
two elements, being changed to ide. 
15. A rapid method of writing formulae for binaries 
may be stated as follows: Write symbol of positive ele- 
ment first, then symbol of negative. Over positive ele- 
ment write its equivalence. Do same over negative. 
Then transfer the number over the positive to lower right 
hand of negative, and the number over negative at lower 
right-hand corner of positive. For example, to write 
II 
formula of zinc phosphide, first write ZnP, then Zn 
III 
P then Zn3P2. (See 8 for equivalence.) 
16. The classification given in 8 is not always used in 
writing formulae, but only when the terminations “ic” 
or “ous” do not appear in the names. 10 
CONDENSED CHEMISTRY. 
17. The terms “ic” and “ous” may be explained as 
follows: Certain elements vary in equivalence; for in- 
stance, sulphur may be either a dyad, tetrad, or hexad. 
This variation is indicated by the terms “ ic ” for the 
highest equivalence, and “ous” for the next lower, and 
“hypo-ous” for the lowest. Anything higher than “ic” 
is sometimes called “per-ic.” Sulphuric oxide means 
hexad sulphur and oxygen; sulphurous oxide means 
tetrad sulphur and oxygen; hypo-sulphurous oxide means 
dyad sulphur and oxygen. 
18. The elements which vary most often in equiva- 
lence may be classified as follows: Cl, Br, I, N, P, As, 
vary one, three, five; that is, chloric, bromic, etc., means 
pentad chlorine, pentad bromine, etc.; chlorotts, bromous, 
etc., means triad chlorine, bromine, etc.; Sb and Bi vary 
three and five; that is, antimonic means pentad Sb; anti- 
monous means triad Sb, etc.; C, Sn, Pt, Pb, vary two 
and four; that is, carbonic means tetrad carbon; carbon- 
ous means dyad C, etc.; sulphur varies two, four, six; 
that is, sulphuric means hexad S, etc. 
19. There are other peculiarities of equivalence: Cer- 
tain elements do not act as true dyads or hexads; they 
are then called pseudo-monads and pseudo-triads. The 
pseudo-monads are Hg and Cu. The pseudo-triads are 
Al, Cr, Mn, Fe. 
20. The term pseudo-monad may be explained as fol- 
lows: Mercuric and cupric mean dyad Hg and dyad Cu; 
mercurous and cuprous mean that two atoms of Hg and 
two atoms of Cu unite with two atoms of hydrogen; 
arithmetically, then, Hg and Cu vary one and two. 
21. The term pseudo-triad may thus be explained: 
Al, Cr, Mn, and Fe, sometimes unite with H as fol- 
lows: Al2, Cr2, etc., unite with He; arithmetically, then, 
one atom would unite with H3. CONDENSED CHEMISTRY. 
22. In accordance with the above statements, the for- 
mulae for mercuric chloride, silver sulphide, potassium 
iodide, cuprous oxide, carbonic sulphide, zinc bromide, 
sulphurous oxide, hyponitrous oxide, phosphoric oxide, 
stannic chloride, arsenious oxide, antimonic sulphide, 
may be written as follows: 
HgCL, Ag2S,KI, (Cu2)2 02=Cu2 O, C2 S, = CS2, ZnBr2, 
S204= S02, N20, P205, Sn Cl4, As203 Sb2S5. 
23. Other methods of naming chemical compounds 
are sometimes used: Numeral prefixes are found, espe- 
cially in English text-books; thus Fe203 would be called 
diferric, tri-oxide. 
24. Certain compounds do not follow our rules laid 
down: 
Binary compounds of lead are named by some authors 
as follows: Where lead is a dyad, the compound is 
called, usually, plumbic; as, for example, PbCl2, which 
is named plumbic chloride. Where lead is a tetrad, the 
compound is called plumbic per; as, for example, Pb02, 
plumbic peroxide. There is also Pb20, called plumbous 
oxide, and PbCl4, plumbic perchloride. Compounds of 
Al, where the latter exerts a pseudo-triad influence, are 
called by many, aluminum oxide, chloride, etc. Com- 
pounds of Cr, when the latter is a pseudo-triad, on the 
other hand, receive the appellation chromic, as Cr2Cl6, 
chromic chloride. Where Cr is a dyad, the compounds 
are named chromoits, as CrCl2, chromous chloride; where 
Cr is a hexad, the terms used are chromic per, as CrF6, 
chromic perfluoride. The same is true of compounds of 
Mn; the compound Mn02, where Mn is a tetrad, is usu- 
ally called manganese dioxide. Compounds of Fe usu- 
ally follow the same rules as those of Cr and Mn. Fer- 
rous indicates that the equivalence of Fe is two; ferric, 
three, ferric di-, four, ferric per- or tri-, six. 12 
CONDENSED CHEMISTRY. 
25. The formulae then for the following: chromic 
oxide, chromic pertiuoride, chromous chloride, chromic 
trioxide, manganic chloride, manganous chloride, man- 
ganic trioxide, manganese dioxide, ferric chloride, ferrous 
chloride, ferric trioxide, ferric oxide, plumbic oxide, 
plumbic peroxide, aluminum chloride, may be written: 
Cr203, CrF6, CrCl2, Cr03, Mn2Cl0, MnCl2, Mn03, Mn02, 
Fe2Cl6, FeCl2, Fe03, Fe203, PbO, Pb02, A12C16. 
26. A ternary compound is one containing three dif- 
ferent elements.- 
27. Ternary molecules are divided into two classes 
according to the equivalence of the element which unites 
the other two elements: we may have a ternary united by 
a dyad element or by a triad element. The most impor- 
tant ternaries, however, are those in which the atom 
performing the linking function is either oxygen or sul- 
phur. 
28. The varieties of ternaries in which oxygen unites 
two atoms or groups of atoms are called acids, hydrates, 
or hydroxides, and salts. 
29. The terms acid, hydrate and salt may be de- 
fined as follows: 
An acid molecule consists of hydrogen, some negative 
element atom or atoms, and oxygen, usually written in 
the following order: hydrogen, negative atom or atoms, 
oxygen; there may be more than one atom of hydrogen 
and more than one atom of oxygen. Acids turn blue 
litmus red. 
A hydrate or hydroxide consists of a positive atom or 
atoms, hydrogen and oxygen. There may be more than 
one atom of hydrogen and of oxygen. Hydroxide for- 
mulae are often written in the following order: positive 
atom or atoms, hydrogen, oxygen. A salt or saline 
molecule consists of a positive atom or atoms, a negative 
atom or atoms, and oxygen; there may be more than CONDENSED CHEMISTRY. 
13 
one atom of oxygen. Salt formulae are usually written 
in order as follows: positive element,' negative element, 
oxygen. 
30. Acids are named from equivalence of the negative 
element; as, for example, one containing hexad sulphur 
we call sulphuric acid, one containing tetrad sulphur sul- 
phurous, etc. 
31. Hydroxides are named from equivalence of the 
positive element; thus one containing dyad copper we 
call cupric hydrate or hydroxide. 
32. Salts are named from equivalence of the nega- 
tive element, the terminations being ate, ite and hypo-ite. 
according as the negative element is in its highest, next 
lower, or lowest equivalence. Thus, a salt containing 
hexad sulphur is called a sulphate, one containing tetrad 
sulphur a sulphite, one containing dyad sulphur a hypo- 
sulphite. The positive element is unchanged in termi- 
nation unless it is one which varies in equivalence, in 
which case it receives the terminations -ic and -ous; 
thus, mercuric nitrate shows that the positive element 
mercury exerts its highest equivalence as does the nega- 
tive element nitrogen. 
33. Rapid Method of Writing the Formula of 
an Acid: 
1. Write the formula of the corresponding oxide. 
2. Reduce if possible. 
3. Add H20. 
4. Reduce if possible. 
Thus to write the formula for sulphuric acid first 
write the formula for the corresponding oxide, i. e., sul- 
phuric oxide. Sulphuric means sulphur with equiva- 
lence of six, therefore, sulphuric oxide, according to our 
method of writing binary formulae, is S206; next reduce 
S206 by dividing both figures by their greatest common 
divisor and we have S03; next add H20—we cannot add 14 
CONDENSED CHEMISTRY. 
H2 to anything in the S03, so we simply write it down 
H2; we cannot add the S in the S03 to anything in the 
H20, so we write it down next to the H2, and have thus 
far H2S; the O in H20 may be added to the 03 in S03, in 
all making 04; writing this 04 after the H2S we have 
H2S04 as our result, which is the formula for sulphuric 
acid. H2S04 cannot be reduced further, as there is no 
number, except one, which will divide all of the figures at 
the lower right hand corner of the symbols. 
To write the formula for nitric acid, first write the for- 
mula for nitric oxide, which is N205; this cannot be re- 
duced, so next add H20 and obtain H2N206; this result 
can be reduced by dividing by 2 and thus becomes 
HN03, which is the formula for nitric acid. 
34. In accordance with the preceding (33), write the 
formulae for the following: sulphurous acid, nitrous acid, 
chromic acid, liypochlorous acid, hyponitrous acid, iodic 
acid, hyposulphurous acid. Answers: H2S03, HN02, 
H2Cr04, HCIO, HNO, HI03, H2S02. 
35. Rapid Method of Writing the Formula) for 
Hydroxides or Hydrates: 
I 
1. Write HO in parenthesis, thus (HO), giving it as one 
expression an equivalence of one. 
2. Write before this parenthesis the symbol of the 
positive element. 
3. [Write equivalence of parenthesis at lower right- 
hand corner of positive element symbol], and equivalence 
of positive element at lower right-hand corner of the 
parenthesis. 
N. B.—As the parenthesis equivalence is one, it is not 
necessary to write it at the lower right-hand corner of 
positive element symbol. 
Thus to write the formula for cupric hydrate first 
I II IT I 
write (HO); prefix Cu and we have Cu(HO); lastly CONDENSED CMEMISTRY. 
15 
write the II as a figure at the lower right-hand corner of 
(HO) and we have Cu(HO)2, the formula for cupric hy- 
drate. It may also be written Cu2HO and also CuH202. 
36. In accordance with the above (35), write the for- 
mulae for potassium hydrate, calcium hydrate, ferric hy- 
drate, platinic hydrate, sodium hydrate, aluminum hy- 
drate. Answers: K(HO), Ca(HO)2, Fe2(HO)6, Pt(HO)4, 
Na(HO), Al2(HO)6. K(HO) is usually written without 
parenthesis, thus KHO. 
37. Rapid Method of Writing Formulae of Salts: 
1. Write formula for corresponding acid. 
2. Bracket the non-hydrogen part of the acid formula. 
3. Erase the H of the acid formula, carefully leaving 
any figure at its lower right hand. 
4. Put m place of the erased H the symbol of the pos- 
itive element. 
5. Write the equivalence of the positive element after 
the parenthesis obtained in (1). 
It is necessary to know what we mean in (1) by the 
“corresponding acid”; if we have a salt ending in ate, 
the corresponding acid is an ic acid, thus the acid cor- 
responding to calcium sulphate is sulphuric acid; if we 
have a salt ending in ite the acid corresponding is an 
ous acid; if the salt be hypo-ite the acid is hypo-ous. 
Suppose now we write the formula for the salt which we 
call calcium hypochlorite: 
(1) First write formula for hypochlorows acid; hypo- 
chlorous oxide+water=hypochlorous acid. Cl20-j-H20 
=H2C1202=HC10. 
(2) HCIO being hypochlorous acid, next enclose all but 
H and we have H(CIO). 
(3) Omit the H, and we have (CIO). 
(4) Put in place of H the symbol for the positive ele- 
ment calcium (calcium hypochlorite is required), and we 
have Ca(ClO). 16 
CONDENSED CHEMISTRY. 
(5) Write equivalence of Ca after parenthesis, and we 
have Ca(C10)2. 
N. B.—After (5) is performed we may reduce if possi- 
ble, and where the equivalence of the positive element is 
one we may remove parentheses at the end. Thus Ca2 
(S04)2 becomes CaS04; K2(S04) becomes K2S04. Where 
the equivalence of the positive element is the same as the 
number of hydrogen atoms of the acid, merely substitute; 
II 
thus calcium sulphate is CaS04, i. e., H2S04+Ca, the one 
atom of calcium being substituted for the two of hydro- 
gen. 
38. In accordance with above (37) write the formula 
for sodium nitrate, calcium nitrite, bismuth chlorate, 
potassium sulphite, barium carbonate, gold chromate, 
platinic sulphate, zinc iodate. Answers: NaN03, Ca 
(NO,),, Bi(C10,)„ K,SO„ BaC03, Au2(Cr04)„ Pt(SO,)2, 
39. Ortho-acids: All acid formulae are not written as 
in (33). An acid in which all the oxygen has a linking 
function is called an ortho-acid. Boric acid is an ortho- 
acid. 
40. To write the formula of an ortho-acid: In an 
ortho-acid there are as many atoms of H and of O, as is 
equal to the equivalence of the negative element. 
Therefore proceed as follows: 
1. Write (HO) as in (35). 
2. Prefix the symbol of the negative element. 
3. Write equivalence of the negative element at lower 
right-hand corner of the (HO). Thus ortho-phosphoric 
acid would be P(HO)5, or H5P05. 
41. Formation of Meta-acids: 
To form a meta-acid subtract one or more molecules 
of water from the formula of the ortho-acid; if we 
subtract one molecule of water the result is a CONDENSED CHEMISTRY. 
17 
mono-meta acid, if two (H2 0)2 or (H4 02), the result is 
a di-meta acid, and so on. Thus the formula for ortho- 
phosphoric acid is, as we have seen, H5 P 05; subtract 
H2 O, and we have H, P 04, the formula for mono-meta 
phosphoric acid, which, however, is not glacial phosphoric 
acid, but the acid corresponding to phosphates. 
42. When we speak of phosphoric acid and of boric 
acid then, we understand : 
Mono-meta phosphoric acid, or H, P 04, and ortho-boric 
acid, or H3 B Or 
43. The formulae for all acids can be derived in the 
same way as in 40 : 
But the rules given in 34 serve most purposes ; some 
few acids are binaries, as hydrochloric, H Cl. 
44. There are ortho- and meta - hydrates: 
The usual formula for a hydrate is that of an ortho- 
hydrate ; there are but few meta-hydrates. 
45. There are exceptions to the rule given in 37 for 
writing formulae of salts. The rules given in 37 apply 
only to what are called normal salts; besides these, there 
are acid, basic, and double salts. To write the formula 
for an acid salt, first write the formula for the acid, then 
substitute the symbol of the positive element for as many 
atoms of hydrogen in the acid as the positive element: 
has equivalence: thus, the formula for acid sodium sul- 
phate would be written as follows: formula for sulphuric 
acid is H2S04, equivalence of sodium is one; substitute 
Na for one atom of H, and we have HNaS04 as the 
formula for the acid sulphate, bi-sulphate or hydro- 
sodium sulphate, by all of which names it is known. 
The formulae for double salts are written in the 
same way, except that all the hydrogen is replaced by 
several atoms of different positive elements: thus, potas- 
sium-sodium sulphate would be written KNa SOv 
There may be double acid salts: thus, the formula for 18 
CONDENSED CHEMISTRY. 
phospnoric acid being H3P04, the acid phosphate of so- 
dium and potassium would be HKNa PO+. 
Basic salts partially replace the hydrogen of a hydrate 
by a negative element, and will not be considered here. 
46. To write the formulae for sulpho-acids and 
sulpho-salts: 
Write the formula for the acid or the salt precisely as 
in 34 and 37; after the formula is written, erase the O, 
and substitute in its place S, being careful not to erase 
any figures: thus, the formula for sulpho-carbonic acid 
would be written as follows: that of carbonic acid is 
H2COs; substitute S for O, and we have H2CS3 as the 
formula for sulpho-carbonic acid; the formula for sodium 
sulpho-carbonate would be written as follows: write the 
formula for sodium carbonate, substitute S for O, and we 
have Na2CS3. 
47. The formulae, directions for writing which have 
been given in questions 34-45, are not the only ones used 
in chemistry. 
The formulae thus far written are called empirical or 
experimental formulae, being derived from analysis. Ra- 
tional formulae are sometimes used, indicating not merely 
the composition of a body, but the way in which the 
atoms are arranged: thus, the formula for mercurous 
chloride may be written Hg—Cl, it being composed of 
Hg—Cl, 
wo atoms of mercury and two of chlorine; each atom 
of mercury has an equivalence of two, making four 
bonds, as the lines indicate, two of which unite with 
the two furnished by the chlorine, and two with each 
other, as shown by the arrangement of atoms in the 
formula. 
48. To read formulae: First notice whether the 
formula be that of a binary compound (having two dif- CONDENSED CHEMISTRY. 
19 
erent symbols) or of a ternary (having three). If a bi- 
nary, the name of the first will be unchanged in English, 
but the second must end in -ide; thus, KC1 must be potas- 
sium chloride. 
If a ternary, notice whether it begin with hydrogen: 
if so it is an acid [or acid salt], and if the number of 
atoms of oxygen be four, it is probably an -ic acid: thus, 
H2S04, is an acid, and is sulphuric acid. If H2S04 is sul- 
phuric acid, H2S03 will be sulphurous, and H2S02 hypo- 
sulphurous. If HN03 be nitric acid, HN02 is nitrous, 
etc. If the ternary begin with a metallic element, fol- 
lowed by HO, it is a hydrate (hydroxide); thus, KHO is 
potassium hydrate or hydroxide. If the ternary begin 
with a metallic element, followed by a non-metallic one 
and oxygen, it is a salt; if the number of atoms of oxy- 
gen be four, it is an -ate salt if sulphur, phosphorus, 
or chromium be the negative element; if the number of 
atoms of oxygen be three, it is an -ate salt, if nitro- 
gen, chlorine, iodine, bromine, or carbon be the non- 
metallic element: thus, K2S04 is potassium sulphate, 
k3po4 is potassium phosphate, but KNOs is potassium 
nitrate, K2C03 is potassium carbonate. 
Summary:— 
All chlorides end in Cln 
“ bromides “ “ Brn 
“ iodides “ “ In 
“ cyanides “ “ (C N)n or Cyn 
“ hydrates “ “ (H 0)n 
“ nitrates “ “ (N 03)n 
“ chlorates “ “ (Cl 03)n 
“ oxides “ “ On 
“ sulphides “ “ Sn 
“ sulphites “ “ (S 03)n 
“ sulphates “ “ (S 04)n 
“ phosphates “ “ (P 04)n 
“ borates “ “ (B 03)n 
“ chromates “ “ (Cr OJn 
n denoting any number. PART II. 
CHEMISTRY. 
Chapter I.—THE ELEMENTS. 
1. Oxygen gas may be prepared in various ways :— 
in the laboratory, by heating 3 parts potassium chlorate 
by weight wTith 1 part manganese dioxide to prevent 
explosion, in a flask provided with a cork stopper, into 
which is inserted a glass tube to convey the gas wherever 
desired; for inhalation, dilute hydrogen peroxide gently 
heated gives off abundant oxygen. 
2. Properties and uses of oxygen : 
Colorless, odorless, tasteless gas. Almost insoluble. 
Intensely active ; increases ordinary combustion. Res- 
pirable when pure ; quickens circulation. 
3. Varieties of combustion : 
Combustion is union with oxygen. Quick and slow. 
Quick combustion is union with oxygen, brought about 
by heat, and attended by light and heat, as when coal 
burns ; the carbon of the coal unites with the oxygen of 
the air. Slow combustion is gradual combination with 
oxygen, as when iron rusts, forming the oxide. Respira- 
tion is an example of slow combustion. 
4. Oxygen is found in the body : 
Chiefly in the blood, not merely dissolved but, accord- 
ing to Bernard and others, combined chemically. 
5. Ozone is regarded as condensed oxygen, has strong 
odor; found free in air, especially after thunderstorm, 
bleaches strongly, very irritating to mucous surfaces. 
Destroys impurities. One volume of air containing 1/mo 
20 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
21 
of ozone will purify 540 volumes of putrid air. Is said 
to disappear from the air during an epidemic. 
6. Ozone may be made in large quantities by passing 
air through a box highly charged with electricity; in small 
quantities by passing a current of air into a tube con- 
taining sticks of phosphorus (covered with water). 
7. Properties and uses of nitrogen: 
Colorless, odorless, tasteless gas, almost insoluble; 
chemically very inert, incombustible, and extinguishes 
combustion ; irrespirable, though has no injurious effect 
on tissues ; is an essential component of many vegetable 
and animal substances. Compounds formed by nitrogen 
are the most energetic known ; it occurs in nitric acid, 
ammonia, nitro-glycerine, prussic acid, and in the alka- 
loids, strychnine, morphine, etc. 
8. Properties and uses of hydrogen: 
Colorless, odorless, tasteless gas. Lightest known sub- 
stance, being nearly 14| times lighter than air. Very 
slightly soluble. Combustible, burning with pale blue 
flame, evolving very great heat. Does not support respi- 
ration nor combustion. On burning forms water, com- 
bining with the oxygen of the air. 
9. Hydrogen is found free in the body : 
In intestinal gases, especially during a milk diet. In 
the stomach when butyric fermentation is going on. 
10. Hydrogen may be made, as follows : 
Mix one part sulphuric acid with four parts water ; let 
cool ; place fragments of zinc in a two-necked bottle— 
or in a wide-mouthed bottle having a cork with two holes 
in it—having a funnel tube, passing nearly to bottom of 
bottle in the cork, which stops one neck, and a delivery 
tube set in the cork stopping the other neck. Place the 
bottle in a dish containing a little cold water, and pour 
in the cooled acid mixture down the funnel tube. Hydro- 
gen is given off, and escapes through the delivery tube. 22 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
11. The average composition of pure air is : 
Oxygen, 20.8 parts by volume ; nitrogen, 79.2. It is 
not a chemical compound of the two gases, but merely a 
mechanical mixture, the nitrogen serving as a diluent of 
the oxygen, which, if pure and unmixed with nitrogen, 
could not be safely breathed for any length of time. 
12. Chlorine gas may be made as follows : 
Place 20 parts, by weight, of commercial hydrochloric 
acid (sp. gr. about 1.16) in a flask as in 10, add 8 parts 
manganese dioxide, agitate, and after a time heat the 
flask on a sand bath (safety-tube may be used, which is 
a funnel-tube bent twice on itself). 
13. Properties and uses of chlorine : 
Yellowish-green; peculiar, suffocating odor; astringent 
taste ; wholly irrespirable ; very soluble in water, one 
volume of the latter dissolving nearly three volumes of 
chlorine, forming what is called chlorine water, decom- 
posing on exposure to light. Powerful bleaching agent 
and disinfectant. 
14. The halogens are : 
Chlorine, bromine, iodine and fluorine, deriving their 
name from their origin, sea-water. Chlorine is a gas, 
and has been already considered (see 12). Bromine is a 
liquid, iodine a solid, [fluorine probably a gas]. 
15. Properties and uses of hr online: 
Brownish-red liquid, irritating odor, emits very heavy 
red vapors ; slightly soluble in water ; soluble in ether. 
Used as a caustic, antiseptic and disinfectant, and as a 
chemical re-agent, especially in estimating urea. Glass 
“ pearls ” containing bromine are used in some processes 
for estimating the latter. Care must be taken not to 
inhale the fumes of bromine, as they are very suffocating ; 
stopper of bottle to be removed with great caution. 
16. Iodine is found in sea-water, mineral waters, cod INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
23 
liver oil and sponges. Found free in small quantities in 
atmosphere. 
17. Properties and uses : 
Solid. Brilliant scales ; gray metallic color ; odor 
like chlorine and bromine, but not so strong. Gives off 
violet vapors. Almost insoluble in water. Soluble in 
alcohol and in potassium iodide. Used externally as irri- 
tant and resolvent. Troy ounce iodine to pint of alcohol 
forms tincture of iodine ; deep brown color ; undergoes 
gradual change wThen kept ; water precipitates iodine 
from it. Dissolved in potassium iodide solution, iodine 
may be used to stain microscopical specimens, as renal 
tube-casts, (5 parts iodine, 15 parts potassium iodide, 3,000 
parts water, all by weight). 
18. Test for iodine : 
Colors starch blue. Starch paste for testing prepared 
as follows : Powder a piece of starch size of pea in 
mortar ; stir up with 25 c. c. of water, and then heat 
the mixture in dish till it boils. Thin, clear solution is 
formed. Add a portion of it to about \ litre uf water, 
and then a few drops of a solution of iodine, and a deep 
blue color is formed. Heat a little in a test-tube, and 
the color disappears ; allow to cool, and color reappears. 
Starch paper is also prepared and used for testing. 
19. Difference in testing for iodine and for an iodide: 
In testing for an iodide add a drop of sulphuric acid 
to liberate the iodine from combination. 
20. Fluorine occurs in the body : 
As fluoride of calcium in bones, teeth, brain, urine, 
milk, blood. 
21. The halogens occur in sea-water, etc., chiefly as 
bromides, iodides, chlorides and fluorides. 
22. Brimstone is crude Slllphlir found in volcanic 
earths. 24 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
23. Varieties of sulphur:—Flowers of sulphur, roll 
sulphur, washed sulphur (sulphur lotum), precipitated 
sulphur (sulphur praecipitatum) or lac sulphur. 
Flowers of sulphur, made by collecting vapors of sul- 
phur in cool chamber. Generally acid, from presence of 
sulphurous acid. Sulphur lotum is flowers of sulphur 
washed until no longer acid. 
Precipitated sulphur is most assimilable; made by ad- 
ding an acid (HC1) to a poly sulphide solution, as potas- 
sium trisulphide; sulphur precipitates, may be removed, 
washed and dried; is paler than flowers of sulphur, and 
more finely divided. 
Roll sulphur, or roll brimstone, made in same way as 
flowers, except that receiving chamber becoming hot, 
sulphur condenses to liquid, and may be drawn off into 
molds. 
24. Properties and uses of sulphur: 
It has three distinct forms, of which the varieties men- 
tioned in 23 are one; second form made by crystallizing 
from fusion at high temperatures; third form, by heat- 
ing melted sulphur to 482 ° F., then suddenly cooling by 
pouring into water. Second form, brown needle-shaped 
crystals, insoluble in carbon disulphide. Third form, 
dark brown tenacious mass, insoluble in carbon disul- 
phide. First form soluble in the disulphide. Any form 
melts at about 240 °F., becoming pale yellow liquid. 
Becomes viscid on further heat, then boils. When 
heated to 500 ° F. takes lire. Gives off dense fumes 
when burned, (sulphurous oxide). 
Valuable as a disinfectant, when burned, and as a para- 
siticide. Found in albumin, bile acids, taurine, and 
many other substances in body. 
25. Phosphorus occurs in the body: 
In the various phosphates found in blood, urine, INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
25 
brain, nerves, bones; chiefly, however, as calcium phos- 
phate. i 
26. Phosphorus may be made by calcining bones and 
treating cinders with sulphuric acid, yielding acid phos- 
phate of calcium, from which the phosphorus itself may 
be obtained. 
27. Properties and uses of phosphorus: 
Freshly prepared, is a pale yellow, transparent solid, 
soluble in carbon disulphide, very inflammable, very poi- 
sonous; must be kept under water. Exposed to light 
becomes red, opaque, insoluble in carbon disulphide, not 
so phosphorescent, inflammable, or poisonous as the 
freshly prepared. 
28. Different forms of car 1)011: 
Crystalline, graphitoidal, amorphous, as in diamond, 
graphite, charcoal, respectively. 
29. Vegetable charcoal may be prepared: place beech 
or birch wood in an iron retort and distil; divide the 
charcoal resulting into lumps size of fist, heat to red- 
ness and speedily extinguish in earthen vessel having 
well-fitted cover; blow off ashes and pulverize finely. 
30. Animal charcoal may be prepared: place thick 
piece ox-hide leather (neat’s leather) on red-hot coals and 
let remain as long as it burns with a flame; when flame 
ceases, lift off and extinguish at once by pressing be- 
tween two flat stones. (Hahnemann’s method). 
31. Properties and uses of charcoal: 
Insoluble, infusible, absorbs gases, energetic disin- 
fectant. 
32. Boron and silicon do not occur free in nature. 
33. The univalent (monad) metallic elements are: 
Sodium, potassium, lithium, silver (rubidium, caesium, 
thallium). 
34. Metallic sodium does not occur free in nature: 
when prepared from its oxide it is a lustrous, silver- 26 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
white, soft metal, of specific gravity 0.98, becoming brit- 
tle at 4 ° F. and fusing at 206 ° . On exposure to air it 
rapidly tarnishes, and if thrown on water decomposes the 
latter with effervescence; if it be prevented from mov- 
ing, or if the water be warm, it takes fire, burning with 
a characteristic yellow flame. 
85. Metallic potassium does not occur free in nature: 
when prepared it is a metal resembling sodium; must 
be kept under naphtha; thrown on water it instantly de- 
composes it, evolving so much heat that the hydrogen 
set free takes fire and burns with characteristic violet 
flame. 
86. Metallic silver occurs free in nature. It is a very 
white metal, odorless, tasteless, easily polished, very mal- 
leable, ductile, tenacious, melts at 1832 ° F. and will 
then dissolve oxygen; for practical purposes must be al- 
loyed with copper; is readily dissolved by nitric acid. 
Chemically pure silver may be obtained by boiling equal 
parts of silver chloride, glucose and crystallized sodium 
carbonate together, in three parts of water; the precipi- 
tated silver should first be washed with a very dilute so- 
lution of hydrochloric acid, and finally with distilled 
water. 
Silver tarnishes when near sulphur or sulphides, form- 
ing silver sulphide. 
37. The bivalent (dyad) metallic elements are : 
Calcium, barium, magnesium, zinc, copper, mercury, 
lead (cerium, strontium), and many others. (See Appendix)* 
38. The metals calcium and barium do not occur in 
nature ; they are very rare, pale yellow, and decompose 
water. 
39. Magnesium does not occur free in nature : when 
prepared it is very like silver, but not so heavy ; it tar- 
nishes in damp air, burns easily and with a flame of 
dazzling brightness, volatilizes at red heat, and may be INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
27 
distilled. Dilute acids dissolve it, forming corresponding 
salts. Minerals containing compounds of magnesium 
have a soapy feel. 
40. Zinc does not occur free in nature: when extracted, 
etc. from its ores it is a bluish-gray, very malleable 
metal, which oxidizes in damp air, an oxide or carbonate 
coating being formed, which preserves it ; it is easily solu- 
ble in dilute acids; water, milk, or wine in contact with 
zinc become charged with poisonous salts of it. Pure 
zinc may be obtained by passing sulphuretted hydrogen 
through a strong and slightly acid solution of zinc sul- 
phate, filtering off any precipitate, boiling the filtrate to 
expel the sulphuretted hydrogen, and precipitating the 
zinc as carbonate by means of sodium carbonate. Wash 
the carbonate thus obtained, re-dissolve in pure sulphuric 
acid, dry, mix with charcoal prepared from loaf sugar, 
and distill mixture in a porcelain retort. 
41. Copper exists free in nature as well as combined : 
when obtained from its ores it is a lustrous metal, flesh- 
red in color, somewhat softer than iron. It is attacked 
readily by chlorine, sulphur, and by nitric acid ; weak 
acids and alkalies, and also saline solutions, act on it 
slowly. It may be prepared in a finely divided state by 
boiling a concentrated solution of copper sulphate, not 
containing free acid, with distilled zinc. As soon as the 
liquid loses its color the zinc is removed, and the copper 
powder well boiled with dilute sulphuric acid ; then 
washed uninterruptedly with water till the washings run 
free from any trace of the acid ; it is then pressed 
between folds of bibulous paper, and dried at 167 ° F. 
42. Mercury occurs free in nature, but is chiefly found 
in form of a sulphide called cinnabar: prepared from 
this sulphide it is a liquid; opaque, insoluble, with 
metallic lustre. Freezes at — 40 ° F., boils at 662 ° F. 
When pure does not adhere to glass.4 Is slightly volatile 28 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
at ordinary temperatures, but does not tarnish. Is not 
attacked by hydrochloric acid nor by dilute sulphuric, 
but is dissolved by strong boiling sulphuric, and by 
dilute nitric. When triturated with bromine, iodine, or 
sulphur, combines with them ; also with chlorine. Chlo- 
rides of sodium, etc., slowly convert it into corrosive 
sublimate. Pure mercury may be obtained by redistilling 
the commercial article with a mixture of equal parts 
nitric acid and distilled water. Separate the mercury 
from the acid solution, wash well, dry with bibulous 
paper. Mercury is variously termed hydrargyrum, argen- 
tum vivum, mercurius vivus, quicksilver. 
43. Lead (Plumbum) does not occur free in nature : 
its principal ore is the sulphide. It is found after 
extraction to be a brilliant, bluish-gray, soft metal. 
Leaves bluish-gray streak on paper ; oxidizes in the air ; 
is acted upon by waters containing nitrates or chlorides, 
but waters containing carbonic acid or sulphates cover it 
with a coating, preventing further action; in the presence 
of air and moisture lead is attacked even by vegetable 
acids. Its best solvent is nitric acid. To procure pure 
lead in form of powder, the galvanic process of reduction 
by means of rods of zinc is used. Crystals of acetate of 
lead are dissolved in one hundred times their quantity of 
distilled water, and a few polished rods of zinc are put 
into four or six ounces of this solution in a porcelain 
dish. The lead is precipitated in form of a dark gray, 
loose, porous mass, which is carefully washed, laid 
between layers of bibulous paper, and finally gently 
rubbed in a warmed porcelain mortar. 
44. Trivalent (triad) metallic elements are gold, bis- 
muth, (antimony, arsenic). 
45. Gold is found native in quartz and in river sand ; 
it is yellow in color, soft, unalterable, most malleable 
of the metals, very heavy, insoluble in everything but INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
chlorine (as obtained in nitro-muriatic acid) and bromine. 
Jeweller’s gold contains 24 parts in all of gold and alloy; 
if 18 parts are gold it is called “ 18 carats fine.” Pure 
gold (Aurum Metallicum) may be prepared as follows : 
Thirty grains of gold are dissolved in nitro-muriatic 
acid ; to this solution six gallons of distilled water are 
added; then two ounces of ferrous sulphate are dissolved 
in one quart of distilled water, and the two solutions 
mixed together. Then add solution of potassium 
chlorate, and let the whole stand till it no longer gives a 
blue precipitate with potassium ferri-cyanide. Finally 
add aqua ammonia in excess. Ferric hydrate is precipi- 
tated, carrying the fine gold down in suspension in it. 
Dissolve the ferric hydrate with hydrochloric acid, collect 
the metallic gold on a filter, thoroughly wash, dry and 
triturate. 
46. Bismuth occurs in the metallic state and in 
many compounds : it is a hard, brilliant, reddish-white 
metal, in crystalline laminae, tarnishing in moisture, 
burning at red heat, soluble in chlorine and in nitric acid. 
47. Antimony occurs in nature both free and in com- 
bination : it is a hard, brittle, silvery metal; unalterable; 
burns at red heat with odor of garlic, suggesting that of 
arsenic, and with white fumes. Is oxidized by nitric 
acid ; is soluble in boiling hydrochloric acid, to which 
nitric acid is slowly added. 
Antimonium crudum is a sulphide. 
48. Arsenic occurs both free and combined. It is a 
dark, steel-gray, brittle solid, with a metallic lustre. It 
volatilizes at 356 ° F., its vapor having a garlic odor. 
Arsenicum album is an oxide. 
49. Quadrivalent (tetrad) metallic elements are : 
Tin, platinum, aluminum (palladium, indium, tita- 
nium, etc). 30 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
50. Tin {Stannum) occurs in nature chiefly as an 
oxide: when obtained from this ore it is a white, soft, very 
malleable metal, crystalline, of a peculiar odor. It can not 
be pulverized ; when bent it has a crackling, called the 
u cry of tin it is unalterable in the air; is not attacked 
by strong nitric acid but violently by dilute, metastannic 
acid being formed ; hot sulphuric acid attacks it; it is 
soluble in hydrochloric acid, forming a chloride. For 
medicinal purposes, tin must be precipitated (Stannum 
Precipitatum) by the galvanic process, when it is ob- 
tained in form of powder, which may be triturated. 
51. Platinum occurs free in nature, though rarely 
pure, being associated often with six or eight other 
metals: when purified it occurs as a brilliant white metal, 
having a bluish tinge ; is hard, tenacious, heavy, mallea- 
ble, ductile, fusible only in the oxyhydrogen flame, unal- 
terable in the air, and soluble only in aqua regia. For 
medicinal use fit for triturations (Platina) it may be ob- 
tained by placing polished steel rods in a dilute solution 
of platinic chloride, upon which the metal will be depos- 
ited as a spongy, iron-gray mass without lustre. The 
precipitate, after being scraped oft' the rods with wooden 
scrapers, is to be boiled with hydrochloric acid, then 
washed well with distilled water and dried. 
52. Aluminum does not occur-free, but in combination 
is, next to oxygen and silicon, the most abundant element 
in nature : wThen prepared from alumina, its oxide, it is a 
bluish-white, sonorous, malleable, ductile, tenacious, very 
light, unalterable metal, soluble in hydrochloric acid and 
in hydrates of the alkalies. 
53. Sexivalent (hexad) metallic elements are : 
Chromium, iron, manganese (nickel, cobalt, tungsten, 
etc). 
54. Chromium does not occur free in nature: when ob- INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
31 
tained from its ores it is a steel-gray, infusible, extremely 
bard metal, 
55. Iron (Ferrum) in the free state is chiefly of mete- 
oric origin: when obtained from its ores, which are 
very numerous, it is a blue-gray, ductile, malleable, te- 
nacious, crystalline metal. When red-hot it decomposes 
water ; exposed to damp air it becomes hydrate of prot- 
oxide (rust) ; it is attacked by most acids, but is rendered 
passive to their action by strong nitric acid. For medic- 
inal use iron must be prepared by hydrogen {Ferrum 
Metallicum, Ferrum Redactum) as follows : First, pure 
ferric hydrate (from ferric chloride) is prepared ; this is 
dried and powdered ; next the ferric hydrate at a red 
heat is submitted to the reducing action of a continuous 
stream of pure hydrogen as long as the vapor of water 
comes off; and finally the stream of hydrogen is continued 
until the reduced iron has cooled. Iron thus obtained is 
an odorless, tasteless, fine, gray powder, readily inflamed 
by a lighted match. 
56. Manganese occurs in nature chiefly as an oxide : 
when obtained from this ore by reduction with charcoal, 
it is a grayish-white, hard metal, resembling cast-iron, 
and very brittle. It oxidizes readily in the air, and dis- 
solves easily in acids. To distinguish it from magnesium 
the name manganesium was given it. For medicinal use 
{Manganum Metallicum) the pure metal is employed. Chapter II.—COMPOUNDS OF THE NON-METAL- 
LIC ELEMENTS. 
1. Binary compounds of hydrogen with oxygen are: 
Water, H20, and hydrogen peroxide, H,02, or HO. 
2. Properties and uses of water: 
Limpid colorless liquid, odorless, tasteless, neutral, 
poor conductor heat and electricity, 773 times heavier 
tiffin air, standard of specific gravity, unites with positive 
oxides to form hydrates, with negative oxides or anhy- 
drides to form acids. Enters into composition of many 
crystalline substances. Its solvent power is very much 
greater than that of any other liquid. 
3. The requisites of potable (drinkable) water are that 
it be: 
Fresh, limpid, odorless, temperature 46 ° to 59 ° F, 
taste feeble, neither insipid, saline, nor sweetish. Should 
contain gases in solution (30 to 80 c. c. to the litre), 
should dissolve soap without lumps, and cook beans thor- 
oughly. May contain salts (0.15 grammes to 0.50 
grammes to the litre). 
4. Simple tests for purity of drinking water are as 
follows: 
Drinking water should not give a white precipitate 
with nitric acid and nitrate of silver (urine contamina- 
tion), nor a marked brown precip. with Nessler’s solu- 
tion (ammonia), nor cause the color of permanganate of 
potassium solution to fade on standing over night (de- 
composing organic matter). 
5. Method of using the permanganate solution: 
A simple way is to make a very dilute solution having a 
light color (dissolving the crystals in pure distilled water), 
pour an equal amount into two test tubes, add one drop 
sulphuric acid to each, add to one a certain amount of the 
water to be tested, to the other the same amount of pure 
32 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
33 
distilled water. Let both stand over night, and notice in 
the morning whether one is paler than the other. Pure 
water will not affect the color except so far as dilution is 
concerned. Impure water may change the color very no- 
ticeably. (See Appendix.) 
6. Water used in chemical operations is distilled. Or- 
dinary water may be taken, a little lime added to retain 
the hydrochloric acid (often formed toward the end of the 
distillation by the decomposition of the chloride of mag- 
nesium in presence of water), the first part rejected, 
which condenses on distillation, and which is apt to con- 
tain carbonic acid or ammonia and the distillation stopped 
when three-fourths of the water has been distilled. Dis- 
tilled water should be neutral to test papers—that is, not 
turn blue litmus paper red nor red litmus blue; should 
leave no residue on evaporation, should give no white pre- 
cipitate with barium chloride, lime water, silver nitrate, 
or ammonium oxalate, nor any precipitate with hydro- 
gen sulphide (sulphuretted hydrogen). 
7. The distinction between efflorescence and deli- 
quescence may be made as follows: 
As stated in 2, water enters into composition of many 
crystalline substances. Salts, which on exposure to the 
air lose their water of crystallization and fall into a white 
powder, are said to effloresce. Substances which in a 
moist atmosphere attract water and liquefy, are said to 
deliquesce. 
8. The purest natural water is rain water. This, how- 
ever, is somewhat contaminated with matters washed 
from the air. River and lake wraters, especially those 
found in granitic regions, are the purest potable waters. 
Mineral waters are called alkaline, sulphurous, chalybe- 
ate, etc., according to prevailing constituents, and con- 
tain usually large amounts of solids in solution. 
Sea water contains about 2,500 grains solids to the* INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
gallon; Ypsilanti water 1,205, Ballston lithia, 1,233, Tun- 
bridge chalybeate spring 7 grains only. 
9. A remarkable substance, rapidly becoming of great 
importance, is hydrogen peroxide, or H2 02. 
10. Properties and uses of hydrogen peroxide: 
When pure, colorless syrupy liquid; harsh, bitter taste, 
whitens tongue, thickens saliva, dropped on hand turns 
cuticle white and produces violent itching. Mixed with 
water, the latter freezes out on exposure to cold, but per- 
oxide does not freeze above 22 ° F. Is seldom sold pure, 
but ordinarily in 3°/0 solutions. Gives off its oxygen even 
when heated gently. Is used in the arts, chemistry, med- 
icine and surgery. In the arts for bleaching purposes, 
especially hair. In chemistry as a re-agent, especially as 
a test for blood (see Urine), and for pus, with which it 
effervesces. In medicine chiefly as an inhalation in 
phthisis. In dental surgery and in general surgery as an 
antiseptic. Must be acidulated in order to keep its oxy- 
gen. Made by action of carbonic or oxalic acid on per- 
oxide of barium. Is both an oxidizing and reducing 
agent. May give off its oxygen with explosive violence- 
11. An important binary compound of hydrogen and 
chlorine is hydrochloric acid gas. 
12. Formula, preparation, properties, uses of hydro- 
chloric acid : 
HC1, binary acid [not ternary, as most acids are]. 
Called also muriatic. Made from common salt and 
sulphuric acid ; transparent, colorless liquid, suffocating 
odor, very corrosive. Fumes. Stains cloth red, turning 
to brown. Fumes strongly near ammonia. Is a solution 
of HC1 gas in water. Sp. gr. strongest, 1.21; homoeo- 
pathic and U. S. P. 1.16. Found free in small amounts 
in gastric juice. 
13. An important binary compound of hydrogen and 
nitrogen is ammonia gas, H;i N. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
35 
14. Properties and uses of ammonia : 
A gas made by heating sal-ammoniac and quicklime. 
Given off during putrefaction of animal matter. Found 
in air, rain water, snow, sea water, soils, under various 
forms. Also in juice of plants, liquids of the economy, 
urine, excrements. In solution called ammonium hydrate, 
Am HO, or NH4 HO. Local excitant and general stimu 
lant. Volatile, caustic. Powerful odor. Aqueous solu- 
tion of ammonia gas having sp. gr. 0.959 is called aqua 
ammonise; contains 10 per cent ammonia. Stronger 
ammonia, aqua ammonise fortior, contains 26 per cent, 
and is a powerful corrosive poison. 
15. An important binary compound of hydrogen and 
sulphur is hydrogen sulphide, H2 S, hydro-sulphuric 
acid, sulphydric acid, sulphuretted hydrogen. 
16. Properties and uses of hydrogen sulphide : 
Is made by action of dilute acid on sulphide (sulph- 
uret) of iron (ferrous sulphide). Is found free in some 
mineral springs (so-called “ sulphur” springs), in putre- 
fying organic matters, and in intestines of men and 
animals. Colorless, fetid gas, combustible, soluble in 
water, readily recognized by its odor (that of rotten 
eggs), valuable as a re-agent, yields precipitates with 
salts of many metals. Blackens unsized paper saturated 
with solution of sugar of lead. Poisonous. 
17. Phosphoretted hydrogen, hydrogen phosphide, 
is a binary compound of hydrogen and phosphorus: H3 P. 
18. Properties, etc., of phosphoretted hydrogen : 
Results from decomposition of organic matter con- 
taining phosphorus, as human bodies. Colorless gas, 
very poisonous, garlic odor, very inflammable, even spon- 
taneously. 
19. A very poisonous binary compound of hydrogen 
and arsenic is H3 As, or arsenietted hydrogen, hydro- 
gen arsenide. 36 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
20. Properties, etc, of hydrogen arsenide : 
Colorless gas, with odor of garlic. Easily inflamma- 
ble. Evolved always when hydrogen is generated in 
presence of a soluble arsenical compound, or when zinc 
is acted upon by an acid contaminated with arsenic. 
Marsh’s test for arsenic depends upon the production of 
this gas. Violently toxic. 
21. Antimonietted hydrogen is a binary compound 
of hydrogen and antimony, H, Sb, resembling arsenietted 
hydrogen though not so poisonous, and occurs whenever 
hydrogen is generated in presence of soluble compound 
of antimony. 
22. Marsh-gas is a binary compound of hydrogen and 
carbon, H4 C; also called hydrogen carbide, methane, 
carburetted hydrogen; occurs free in nature, being pro- 
duced somewhat abundantly by the decomposition of 
vegetable matter confined under water. It constitutes 
the fire-damp of miners. 
23. Laughing gas, N20, nitrogen protoxide, called also 
“ nitrous ” oxide (really a hyponitrous oxide), is a binary 
compound of nitrogen and oxygen, made by heating am 
monium nitrate. The gas given off is collected in salt 
water, and purified before being used. It is colorless, 
odorless, has a slightly sweetish taste, and is valuable as 
momentary anaesthetic. 
24. Binary acids derived from the halogens: 
Hydrochloric, hydrobromic, liydriodic, hydrofluoric: not 
readily obtained free. 
Properties and uses of hydrofluoric acid: 
Hydrofluoric acid, HF, colorless gas, odor and taste 
very caustic, very soluble in water, yielding a liquid vio- 
lently caustic, causing severe burns and painful ulcers 
on the skin, and used to etch glass. Kept in gutta 
percha flasks; made in leaden vessels. 
[Hydrochloric acid has already been considered.] INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
37 
25. Binary compounds of carbon of importance are 
two with oxygen, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, 
and one with sulphur, carbon disulphide. 
26. Properties and uses of carbon dioxide: 
Colorless, odorless gas, about one-half heavier than 
air, slightly acid taste, very soluble in water. Is product 
of slow as well as quick combustions, of respiration, fer- 
mentation, putrefaction. Found in air, water, breath; in 
milk, urine, etc., in combination. Prepared by adding 
dilute acid to a carbonate, as hydrochloric acid to lime- 
stone. Is narcotic when inhaled, and produces fatal effects 
in vats, wells, mines, etc. 
27. Tests for C02: 
In gaseous form extinguishes combustion; in solution 
yields white precipitate (calcium carbonate) with lime 
water; shown in breath by blowing through tube into 
lime water, causing turbidity. 
28. When excess of carbon is burned in oxygen, there 
is formed: 
Carbon monoxide (carbonous oxide, carbonic oxide 
as contrasted with carbonic acid), CO. 
29. Properties and uses of CO: 
Colorless, insipid, insoluble gas. Combustible (pale 
blue flame). Very poisonous, cause of charcoal asphyxia, 
etc. 
80. Bisulphide of carbon, CS2, carbonic disulphide, 
or bisulphide, or bisulphuret; a very mobile, colorless 
liquid, made by passing fumes of sulphur over red-hot 
charcoal. Combustible, valuable solvent for iodine, sul- 
phur, phosphorus, oils, fats, etc. Forms sulpho-carbon- 
ates with alkaline sulphides. Has never been frozen. 
Vaporizes at ordinary temperatures, useful as local anaes- 
thetic, but has disgusting odor. Vapors cause headache 
and general feebleness of* muscular forces. 38 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
31. Formula, preparation, properties and uses of 
nitric acid: 
H N03. Called aqua fortis. Distil potassium ni- 
trate with equal weight concentrated sulphuric acid. 
Officinal acid, specific gravity 1.42. Strongest, 1.52. 
Colorless, transparent liquid. Very corrosive. Decom- 
poses on exposure to light, and becomes yellow. Stains 
animal and vegetable tissues yellow. Stain can not 
readily be removed. Used as caustic for venereal sores, etc. 
32. Give tests for hydrochloric and nitric acids re- 
spectively. 
HC1 is recognized by yielding a white curdy precipi- 
tate with silver nitrate, soluble in ammonia (solution). 
HNO, darkens a pap made by triturating sulphuric 
acid with ferrous sulphate; it has a violent action on cop- 
per, forming a blue solution, and giving off dense brown 
fumes. Turns brucine an intense red. 
33. Metals with which nitric acid forms nitrates: 
Silver, mercury, copper, iron, lead. 
34. Metals oxidized by it: 
Antimony and tin. 
35. Action of this acid on metals: 
Varies according to strength, and whether heat be used 
or not. 
36. Action of nitric acid or hydrochloric acid Oil 
gold: 
Neither affects it when used singly, but a mixture of 
the two, called aqua regia, dissolves gold; the mixture 
may be fifteen parts of hydrochloric to four of nitric, 
and the gold is dissolved by the chlorine resulting, and a 
chloride of the metal is formed. (Nitromuriatic acid, 
nitrohydrochloric acid.) 
37. Formula, properties, and uses of nitrous acid: 
HN02; yellowish liquid; used in medicine instead of INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
39 
nitric acid as a test for bile in the urine. (See Urine.) 
Sweet spirit of nitre contains it in combination. 
38. Value of hypochlorous acid : 
Bleaching agent. Its solution in water removes ink 
stains. 
39. Properties and uses of sulphuric acid: 
Sulphuric acid, H2S04, hydrogen sulphate, oil of vitriol, 
is not found free in body, but occurs combined in form 
of sulphates in blood, urine, and all liquids of body. 
May be made by burning sulphur, and mixing fumes with 
air, nitric acid fumes, and steam. Colorless, odorless, 
heavy, oily liquid. Generates heat on addition of water. 
Very caustic. Stains fabrics reddish, and chars organic 
matter. Stain removed by ammonia. Valuable for dry- 
ing gases on account of its affinity for moisture. Immense 
quantities used for various purposes in commerce. De- 
tected by yielding white precipitate with solution of ba- 
rium chloride, insoluble in HN03. Sp. gr. pure 1.848; 
officinal 1.843. 
40. Properties and uses of sulphurous acid: 
Sulphurous acid H.2SO.i% may be made by burning 
sulphur and passing the fumes (sulphurous oxide) into 
water. Colorless liquid ; used for bleaching and disin- 
fectant purposes, and (dilute) in skin diseases, etc. Has 
strong odor of brimstone. Removes fruit and port wine 
stains. 
41. Phosphoric acid, properties, etc: 
There are two varieties, the glacial and the ordinary. 
The phos. acid of the homoeopathic pharmacopoeia is pre- 
pared from the glacial acid (mono-hydrogen phosphate or 
meta-phosphoric acid). Glacial phosphoric acid, HPOs, 
is in colorless ice-like transparent masses, very hygro- 
scopic, soluble in water and alcohol. Is a delicate test for 
albumen in the mine. 
The phosphoric acid found in the body is not the 40 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
glacial, but tri-hydrogen phosphate, H.,P04, occurring 
combined with various elements. In general, when a 
phosphate is spoken of, a salt of this acid is understood, 
and not one of the glacial acid. The acidum ph osphoric - 
um dilutum of the drug stores contains about 14 per 
cent of this acid. It is a colorless, odorless, sour liquid; 
H,PO(, gives no coagulum with solutions containing 
albumen, but yields a yellow coloration and ultimately a 
precipitate with ammonium molybdate in solutions made 
acid with nitric acid, the reaction being hastened by 
warming the mixture. This test applies to phosphates 
also. 
42. Phosphorous oxide and acid are made : 
By burning phosphorus and conducting the fumes 
into water. 
43. Theoretical constitution of boracic acid : 
Boracic or boric acid is ortho-boric acid, B (HO)3 or 
H3BOs. 
44. Properties and uses of boric acid : 
White solid, feeble taste, greasy touch, slightly soluble 
in cold water. Soluble in three parts hot water. Valu- 
able antiseptic. Soluble in alcohol and glycerine. Sat- 
urated with alcohol burns with green flame. 
45. Silicic acid is variously termed silica, silicic oxide, 
or anhydride, silicea, silicic acid, Si02: occurs pure in 
nature as quartz crystal. Occurs in many natural waters, 
especially those of thermal springs; stiffens the stems of 
cereal grains, and is found in animal tissues. Constitutes 
sand. 
46. Properties of silica : 
White, amorphous powder ; scratches glass ; almost 
insoluble in water and in everything but hydrofluoric 
acid. The silicates constitute glass. Chapter III.—COMPOUNDS OF THE METALLIC 
ELEMENTS. 
47. Fourteen compounds of potassium of importance 
in medicine are: 
Potassium Bromide, KBr; Chloride, KC1; Iodide, KI; 
Hydrate, KHO; Nitrate, KN03; Cyanide, KCnorKCy; 
Phosphate, K:i P04; Sulphate, K2 S04; Chlorate, KCIO.,; 
Chromate, K2Cr04; Bichromate, K2Cr20T; Permanganate, 
K2Mn2Og or KMn04; Ferrocyanide, K4FeCy6; Ferricy- 
anide, K6Fe2Cy12. 
48. Potassium bromide, K Br, is a sedative to nerv- 
ous system. Made from bromine and potassium hydrate. 
White; salty taste; very soluble. Kali Bromatum. 
49. Potassium iodide, KI, is used in syphilitic and 
scrofulous affections. Made by heating iodine with 
pearl ash. Colorless crystals; saline, acrid taste; very 
soluble; solution dissolves iodine. Kali Jodatum. 
50. Potassium cliloride, K Cl, is found in animal 
fluids, in blood cells, and instead of sodium chloride in 
muscle juice. WThite, soluble. Kali Muriaticum. 
51. Potassium hydrate is called “potassa” and 
“caustic potash.” White, caustic, very soluble, deliques- 
cent, comes in form of sticks, burns hands, clothing, etc. 
Liquor potassce is one ounce of it in one pint of water. 
Has soapy feel to the fingers. Kali Causticum. 
52. Potassium cyanide, KCN or KCy, is very poison- 
ous ; used often for purposes of suicide. Useful in solu- 
tion for cleaning metals. Colorless crystals, soluble. 
Kali Cyanatum. 
53. The various phosphates of potassium are: K3P04, 
K2HP04, KH2P04. K3P04, called in medical works basic 
phosphate, and in some works sub phosphate, is the normal 
potassium phosphate; K2 H P04, called neutral phos- 
phate, is said to occur in all solids and fluids of the body, 
and to be one of the substances giving alkaline reaction 42 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
to the various fluids. It is the Homoeopathic Kali Phos. ; 
white, deliquescent, soluble. K H, P04, is called acid 
phosphate and super phosphate of potassium. 
These salts are known also as tri-potassium phosphate, 
dipotassium hydrogen phosphate, and dihydrogen potas- 
sium phosphate, respectively. 
54. Potassium nitrate, KNO.„ called nitre or salt- 
petre ; used in making gunpowder ; white ; much more 
soluble in hot than in cold water. Kali Nitricum. 
55. Potassium sulphate, K2S04, is found in urine 
and excrements. Obtained artificially, is colorless crys- 
tals; soluble, very hard and dry. Kali Sulphuricum. 
Bisulphate, K H S04, exists also. 
56. Potassium Chlorate, KC103, is the least soluble 
of the salts mentioned, one pai*t in seventeen of cold water. 
Used as gargle, etc., in solution. Poisonous. Explosive. 
Must not be triturated carelessly with organic substances. 
Mixed with sugar deflagrates on addition of sulphuric 
acid, and gives off green-yellow fumes of agreeable odor. 
Kali Chloricum. 
57. Potassium chromate is in form of yellow, shin- 
ing crystals, soluble. 
58. The bichromate of potassium, K2Cr,07, or 
K2Cr04, Cr03 (potassium chromate and chromic oxide), is 
red, soluble. Used in the arts and in medicine. Poison- 
ous. Kali Bichromicum. 
59. The permanganate of potassium, K2Mn208, or, 
KMn04, is in the form of very dark purple crystals, sol- 
uble. Solutions, even when very dilute, show decided pur- 
ple tint. Color of solutions discharged by organic matter, 
and by oxidizable matters in general. The permanganate 
can not be triturated with milk sugar, as it decomposes. 
Solutions must always be made fresh. Solutions can not 
well be filtered. Very powerful disinfectant. Gives off 
ozone. As a gargle, valuable in diphtheria. As disin- INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
43 
fectant for household purposes strength 10 grains to 
fluid ounce of water. As antiseptic solution, ounce to the 
pint. Condy’s fluid contains 32 grains to the pint. Kali 
Permanganicum. 
Theoretical constitution: Permanganic acid, H2Mn208, 
may be deemed to be derived from manganese heptox- 
ide (Mn207) and water (H20); potassium permanganate, 
K2Mn208, by exchanging the two atoms of hydrogen in 
the acid for two of potassium. 
60. Potassium ferrocyanide is composed of the 
tetrad radicle or group of elements FeCy6 or FeCBN6, 
which takes in combination four atoms of potassium, 
hence K4FeCy6; called yellow prussiate of potash. Yel- 
low, soluble; in solution is used chiefly as test for certain 
metals, notably iron and copper, and with acetic acid or 
citric acid as a delicate test for albumin in urine. The 
ferricyanide is K6Fe2Cy12 or K3FeCy6, red and soluble, 
and called the red prussiate. 
61. The carbonate and bicarbonate of potassium: 
Carbonate is K2C03, called also “salt of tartar”; Kali 
Carbonicum. White, deliquescent, soluble. Occurs in 
body as bicarbonate chiefly, KHCO.„ called acid carbon- 
ate or hydro-potassium carbonate, white and soluble. 
62. Salts of compared with those of so- 
dium, show the following differences: 
Blood globules contain ten times as much potassium 
compounds as the plasma. There are more potassium 
salts in the muscles, white of egg, milk, brain, liver, and 
saliva, than there are sodium salts in the same. The 
compounds of potassium are more irritating and poison- 
ous than those of sodium in the same dose. 
63. A simple method of distinguishing one from 
another the different compounds of potassium thus 
far named : 
Given that the salt is one of those of potassium thus 44 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
far named, and that it is in the solid form: the hydrate 
occurs in sticks, the permanganate is purple, the bichro- 
mate red, the chromate yellow, the ferrocyanide yellow, 
the ferricyanide red. The chromate is much brighter in 
color than the ferrocyanide. The other salts are white: add 
a few drops of H2 S04 to crystals of every one of them; the 
bromide gives marked action and turns yellowish red; the 
iodide ditto and reddish black ; the chlorate gives off 
chlorous fumes of agreeable odor, turning yellowish red 
(mixed with sugar deflagrates with H2 S04); the chloride, 
carbonate, sulphite and nitrate give no color with H2 
S04, but yield fumes ; the sulphate and phosphate no 
action at all. Dissolve in water fresh amounts of the 
four, giving action with H2 S04, but no color, namely: the 
chloride, carbonate, sulphite and nitrate; add the acid to 
all four, the carbonate effervesces. To a fresh amount 
of the other three add Ag N03; the chloride and sulphite 
yield white precipitates, the sulphite precipitate darkening 
on heating (A sulphite yields fumes having an odor 
like that of brimstone on being treated in the solid form 
with an acid.); the nitrate remains. Add a fresh amount 
of it to the “pap” described in Chapter II., 32, and 
observe dark coloration. The sulphate and phosphate 
gave neither color nor fumes with H.,S04; dissolve them 
both in water, add a drop or two of HNO, to both, then 
BaCl2 to both; the sulphate yields a white precipitate; 
to a fresh amount of the phosphate add a drop or two of 
nitric acid, as before, then ammonium molybdate solu- 
tion, and warm. A yellow coloration (ultimately a pre- 
cipitate) occurs. 
64. Tests for the hypophosphite and cyanide may be 
made as follows : 
These have not been included in the list above given. 
The hypophosphite is unstable and deliquescent; when 
fresh, occurs in white, opaque, confused, crystalline INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
45 
masses, having a disagreeable, bitter taste ; very soluble 
in water and alcohol, but insoluble in ether. Heated over 
flame burns with phosphorescent light. 
The pure cyanide, dissolved in water, yields with 
Ag N03, a precipitate insoluble in cold nitric acid, and 
nearly so in ammonia (the chloride precipitate with 
Ag NO:s is soluble in ammonia). Precipitate soluble in 
excess of reagent. (See Appendix.) 
65. To ascertain whether a compound be that of potas- 
sium or some other metal: 
Pt Cl4 (platinic chloride) yields in neutral or slightly 
acid solutions a yellow precipitate insoluble in alcohol. 
Acid tartrate of sodium yields precipitate (shake well). 
If the salt be in solid form burned in hottest part of 
Bunsen flame it will give a violet coloration to the flame, 
best seen by looking through blue glass. (Of these three 
tests the first two apply to salts of ammonium as well as 
to those of potassium, hence importance of last one.) 
66. Ten salts of sodium of interest are : 
The chloride, NaCI; the borate, Na2B407; the hydrate, 
NaHO; the carbonate, Na2C03; the phosphates, Na„ P04; 
the sulphate, Na2S04; the hypochlorite, NaCIO; the sul- 
phite, Na2S03; the hyposulphite, Na2S02. 
67. Sodium chloride: 
“Natrum muriaticum,” common salt, found in sea and 
mineral water, in every fluid and organ of the body. 
Purgative given internally, irritant externally. Equally 
soluble in hot and cold water. Next to calcium phosphate 
most abundant salt in body, amount about a quarter of a 
pound; least of all in muscle juice, blood cells poor in it, 
cartilage rich; parts in 1,000 of blood. 
68. Borax: 
Called biborate of sodium (also tetraborate) Na20 (B2 
03)2 -(- 10 H2 O. Is an alkaline, diuretic substance; dis- 
infectant, white, soluble, efflorescent; melts at low heat 46 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
and swells greatly, at a higher temperature becomes a 
clear liquid, then a vitreous substance (borax glass). 
Solution should give no precipitate with barium chloride 
(sulphate impurity) nor with silver nitrate (chloride im- 
purity). Is often adulterated with alum and rock salt. 
69. Sodium hydrate: 
Caustic soda. [See KHO]. Should be kept in paraffined 
stoppered bottles. With water forms “soda lye.” 
70. Sodium carbonate: 
Na2C03. Carbonate of sodium, “ wrashing sodaefflor- 
escent crystals; soluble. “Sal-sodse” Natrum carboni- 
cum. Strong alkaline properties. 
71. The bicarbonate of sodium is : 
Sodium acid carbonate, NaHC03. An alkaline sub- 
stance much less soluble than Na2C03. Equal parts of 
it and NaCl make a good application to parts stung by 
insects. 
72. Sodium sulphate: 
“ Glauber’s salts.” Natrum Sulphuricunl. Strongly 
purgative. Found in mineral waters. Bitter, nauseous, 
efflorescent, soluble. Found in urine. 
73. Chloride of soda: 
Term applied to solution of the hypochlorite, NaClO. 
In solution removes ink stains, etc. Decomposes urea. 
(See Fowler’s test). Disinfectant. 
74. Sodium sulphite: 
Na2 S03. Efflorescent. "Used to “keep” cider, etc. 
Good local application in erysipelas (1 drachm to fluid 
ounce water). Soluble. 
75. Sodium hypo-sulphite: 
Na2 S2 03. Deliquescent. Very soluble. In solution 
dissolves chloride, iodide and bromide of silver. Used in 
photography. 
76. The phosphates of sodium : 
The normal, or basic, Na3, P04, is an alkaline purgative INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
47 
substance more agreeable than “Glauber’s salts.” The 
neutral, Na2 H P04, is found in the body, and is the Na- 
trum Phosphoricum of the Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia, 
called also “Phosphate of Soda.” White, soluble. 
77. The hypopliospite of sodium: 
Na (H2 P02). Soluble. Very deliquescent. Prepared in 
syrup. Solution evaporated has been known to explode 
with great violence. Used with idea of furnishing phos- 
phorus to tissues. 
78. “ Soluble glass ”: 
“ Silicate of soda.” Used in syrupy solution for im- 
movable dressings. Renders wood, etc., fire proof. 
79. To generalize in regard to compounds of Na : 
Nearly all white and soluble. May be used when those 
of K cause irritation. Found everywhere in body, chiefly 
as chloride and phosphate, and usually more abundant 
than those of K. 
80. Tests : 
For the chlorides, sulphates, etc., same as for those of 
K (see 63); to distinguish a salt of sodium from that of 
other metals is not easy, but try re-agents for other 
metals, and if no precipitates are obtained, acid pyroan- 
timoniate of potassium may give a white precipitate, if a 
salt of Na be present. Yellow coloration to Bunsen 
flame is imparted by salts of sodium. (See Appendix.) 
81. Compounds of ammonium of interest: 
The hydrate, AmHO or NH4HO; the chloride, Am 
Cl or NH4C1; the carbonate, Am2C03 or (NH4)2 CO:!; 
the hydro-sulphide, ArnHS; the nitrate, AmN03 or NH4 
NO, 
82. The compounds are formed from a hypothetical 
univalent radicle, NH4 (abbreviated, Am). 
83. Sal-ammoniac: 
The chloride, AmCl or NH4C1. White, soluble solid; 
bitter, piquant taste. Wholly insoluble in alcohol. 48 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
84. The carbonate: 
The commercial “carbonate” is really a mixture of the 
acid carbonate and the carbamate (NH4HC03 NH4NH2C02). 
White, soluble; strong odor of ammonia; turns into bicar- 
bonate (acid carbonate) on exposure to air. Valuable as 
a vesicant. 
85. The hydro-sulphide: 
Am H S, yellow liquid, called sulph-hydrate, of disgust- 
ing odor, valuable as re-agent. In gaseous form given off 
from privy vaults. 
86. The nitrate: 
Am N03 or NH4 NO:r Forms freezing mixture with 
water. 
87. To generalize in regard to Am compounds: 
Nearly all soluble and volatile. In solution heated 
with KHO or NaHO, the odor of ammonia is readily 
recognized. Nessler’s solution a delicate test. 
88. An important salt of silver is : 
The nitrate: AgNOs, lunar caustic. Used in injections 
and eye washes. Dissolve pure silver in pure HN03, 
and allow to crystallize. Solutions should be neutral in 
reaction to litmus. Solid form, crystals or sticks, white; 
metallic, bitter, styptic taste, very soluble. Blackens 
on exposure to light and on contact with organic matter. 
Salts of silver give white curdy precipitate with HC1. 
Soluble in Am HO (ammonia), insoluble in HN03 (nitric 
acid). 
89. Important compounds of calcium: 
The carbonate, Ca C03; the oxide, Ca O; the hydrate, 
Ca (HO)2; the phosphate, Ca3 (P04)2; the chloride, Ca 
Cl2; the hypochlorite, Ca (Cl 0)2; the sulphate, Ca S04; 
the sulphide, Ca S; the iodide, Ca I2; the fluoride, CaFr 
90. Described in the order named: 
Ca C03, chalk, marble, limestone: found in bones, egg 
shells, oyster shells (Calcarea Carbonica), in otoliths, INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
49 
saliva, alkaline urine, in concretions. Insoluble, white, 
antacid. Soluble in water containing C02 (carbon di- 
oxide, carbonic acid). 
CaO, lime; quicklime: Heat the carbonate. White, 
infusible, less soluble in hot than in cold water. 
Ca (HO)j, slack lime, slaked lime; Oxide and 
water, swells, gives off heat, Lime-water is 4 Troy 
ounces lime in 8 pints distilled water. Alkaline. Cal- 
carea Caustica. 
Ca3 (P04)2, basic phosphate, tri-calcic phosphate, 
hone phosphate: Found in whole organism, constitutes 
two-thirds of the teeth, found in bones, calculi; in the 
ash of albuminous substances; white, insoluble. Amoi'- 
phous sediment in urine. Readily soluble in acid 
solutions. Calcarea Phosphorica. 
CaHPOv neutral phosphate: Occurs in crystalline 
form (“ stellar ” phosphate) in pale, weakly acid urine. 
CaHi (P04)2, acid phosphate: Gives acidity to urine, 
but not found as a sediment in urine. Occurs in gastric 
juice. 
Ca Cl2, calcium chloride: Used to dry gases (ex- 
cept ammonia). Calcarea Muriatica. 
Ca(ClO)2, chlorinated lime, “chloride of lime:" White, 
soluble, slowly decomposes, disinfectant, “ bleaching pow- 
der,” composed of calcium hypochlorite and chloride, 
Calcarea Chlorata. 
CaS04, calcium sulphate, gypsum: Hard, white, 
nearly insoluble; heated to 300° or 400° F., becomes 
“ plaster-of-Paris,” which, powdered and mixed with 
water, becomes hard again. Calcarea Sulphurica. 
CaS, calcium sulphide: If pure: white, amorphous, 
alkaline reaction. 
Hepar Sulphur Calcarea is an impure sulphide, having 
odor and taste of sulphuretted hydrogen, insoluble. 
Calcium sulphide is an ingredient of luminous paints. 50 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
Cal2,Calcarea Hydriodica, calcium iodide: Very 
soluble, deliquescent, white. 
CaFl2, calcium fluoride: Found in enamel of teeth, 
in bones, milk and blood. Fluor-spar. Calcarea Fluorata. 
91. To generalize in regard to compounds of calcium: 
The phosphates and carbonates of calcium give hard- 
ness and resistance to the parts of the body in which 
they occur. 
To identify a salt of calcium in solution, add solution 
of soluble oxalate, as oxalate of ammonium; a white pre- 
cipitate forms, soluble in HC1 or HNOs, but insoluble 
in acetic acid. 
92. Salts of barium of interest are: 
The carbonate BaC03, the sulphate BaS04, the oxide 
BaO, the hydrate Ba(H02), the chloride BaCl2, the 
nitrate Ba (N03)2, the iodide Bal2. 
93. BaC03, Baryta Carbonica, white, insoluble. 
BaS04, Baryta Sulphurica, constituent of heavy 
spar, formed when BaCl2 is added to H2S04, one of the 
most insoluble substances known. 
BaO, baryta (see CaO). White. 
Ba (H0)2, caustic baryta, made from BaO and H20. 
Baryta water contains it; but more soluble than caustic 
lime. White. 
BaCl2, white, soluble. In solution is used as a test 
for H2S04. Baryta Muriatica. 
Ba (N03)2, white, soluble, poisonous; also test for H2 
S04. 
Bal2, Baryta Iodata, yellowish-white, hygroscopic, 
soluble, disagreeable nauseating taste, very poisonous. 
94. To generalize in regard to compounds of barium: 
Soluble salts of barium are poisonous. In solution 
they may yield precipitate with ammonium oxalate, like 
salts of calcium, but barium salts also give, with potas- 
sium chromate solutions, a yellow precipitate of the INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
51 
chromate of barium insoluble in acetic acid, but soluble 
in HC1 or HN03. 
95. Compounds of magnesium are: 
The chloride, MgCl2, white, soluble, very bitter. 
Magnesia Muriatica. 
The oxide, Mg 0, calcined magnesia, magnesia, white, 
infusible. More soluble in cold than in hot water; laxa- 
tive, antacid, antidote to arsenic and caustic acids. 
Magnesia Usta. 
The sulphate, MgS04, “Epsom salts,” white, solu- 
ble, very bitter, purgative; found in mineral waters. 
Magnesia Sulphurica. 
The normal or basic phosphate, Mg3 (P04)2, found 
along with the calcium phosphate in the body in less 
amount, except in muscles and thymus gland. White, 
insoluble in water. Magnesia Phosphorica is MgHP04, 
neutral phosphate. 
The carbonate, Mg C0;j, magnesia alba, white, in- 
soluble. Found in body with Ca Co3. The officinal car- 
bonate, Magnesia Carbonica, is a mixture of the carbon- 
ate, hydrate and water. 
The ammonio-magnesium phosphate, Mg Ain 
P04, “triple” phosphate, formed whenever HNa2P04, 
neutral phosphate of sodium comes in contact with a 
salt of magnesium in presence of a salt of ammonium. 
Found in alkaline urine, in fseces, especially of typhoid 
fever, in calculi. Under microscope shows large prisms. 
Very soluble in acids, insoluble in alkalies. 
96. The compounds of magnesium are, in general, 
neutral, colorless and, if soluble, very bitter to the taste. 
They may be detected in solution by adding solution of 
AmCl, excess of AmHO, and Na2P04 (ammonium 
chloride, excess of ammonium hydrate—solution of am- 
monia—and sodium phosphate). A precipitate, white 
and crystalline, of the ammonio-magnesium phosphate 
falls. 52 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
97. The compounds of zinc of interest are: The 
sulphate, the chloride, the bromide, the oxide, the iodide. 
98. The sulphate, Zn4 S04. White vitriol, white 
copperas. Astringent, emetic, irritant poison. Small, 
colorless, transparent crystals, often mistaken for Epsom 
salts. Caustic, soluble. Zincum Sulphuricum. 
The chloride, Zn Cl2. Caustic, antiseptic. Used to 
produce healthy granulations in malignant and indolent 
ulcers, as lupus. Whitish-gray, semi-transparent, deli- 
quescent masses, soft as wax. Soluble in water, alcohol, 
and ether. Constituent of Burnett’s Disinfecting Fluid. 
Zincum Muriaticum. 
The bromide, Zn Br2. Deliquescent, soluble. Used 
nervous diseases. Zincum Bromatum. 
The oxide, Zll 0. Yellow-white, insoluble. Used as 
dusting powder, and in ointment (80 grams to 400 of 
benzoin ointment). Zincum Oxydatum. 
The iodide, Zn I2. White, soluble. Used like ZnCl2. 
99. The salts of zinc are, as a rule, colorless, of dis- 
agreeable styptic taste; astringent, caustic and poison- 
ous. They are detected in solution by ammonium sul- 
phide, Am2S, which yields a white precipitate of ZnS 
(insoluble in KHO, but soluble in mineral acids). Zinc 
sulphate may be distinguished from Epsom salts by 
yielding in solution a white precipitate with solution of 
potassium ferrocyanide, K4FeCy6. Zinc salts may be dis- 
tinguished from those of aluminium in that ammonia 
solution cautiously added to solutions of the zinc salts 
gives a white precipitate, dissolved on stirring, shaking, 
or adding more of the ammonia. Aluminium salts 
give a precipitate with ammonia which is insoluble in 
excess, i.e., persists, even when more of the reagent is 
added. 
100. Compounds of mercury are of two kinds: mer 
curie and mercurous. In mercuric compounds, mercury INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
53 
has an equivalence of two; but in mercurous compounds 
it is a pseudo-monad, and practically, therefore, has an 
equivalence of one. The Homoeopathic term “Mercu- 
rius ” is general and does not distinguish mercuric from 
mercurous compounds. Among important compounds 
of Hg, we find the following: 
Mercuric chloride: HgCl2, the bichloride, dichlo- 
ride, deuto-chloride, perchloride, corrosive chloride, corro- 
sive sublimate, Mercurius Sublimatus Corrosivus, “Merc. 
Cor.,” made by subliming a mixture of common salt and 
mercuric sulphate. White, semi-transparent, crystalline 
masses, permanent, inodorous, having acrid, styptic taste, 
soluble in sixteen parts cold water and two of boiling, 
more soluble in alcohol (three parts). Aqueous solution 
decomposes in light. Organic substances decompose it. 
Solutions coagulate albumin; coagulum soluble in alka- 
lies. Antiseptic. Very poisonous. 
Tests: With ammonia, a white precipitate; with potas- 
sium iodide, a scarlet-red precipitate (mercuric iodide), 
soluble in excess; with potassium hydrate, a yellow pre- 
cipitate (mercuric oxide); with sulphuretted hydrogen, 
a reddish-yellow precipitate (sulphide), changing to black 
(gray or white precipitate, if in small amount) with mot 
tied appearance; with HC1 and copper-foil, a coating of 
metallic Hg on the foil; with stannous chloride, a white 
precipitate, with excess of stannous chloride deposition 
of metallic mercury as gray powder. 
Mercurous chloride: Hg Cl, or Hg2 Cl2, Mercurius 
Dulcis, mild chloride, sub-chloride, submuriate, proto- 
chloride, calomel. Formed when H Cl is added to 
solution of an -ous salt of mercury. 
White, fibrous, crystalJme cakes; light buff or ivory- 
colored powder, tasteless, odorless, insoluble. Darkens 
on long exposure to light. Boiled with water should 54 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
give no precipitate with ammonia, indicative of presence 
of the poisonous mercuric chloride. 
Mercuric Iodide: Hgl2, biniodide of mercury, 
deut-iodide, Mercurius Iodatus Ruber, “Merc Bijod,” 
red iodide ; formed when solution of potassium iodide 
is cautiously added to solution of mercuric chloride. 
Fine, heavy, crystalline, scarlet-red powder. Nearly 
insoluble in water, soluble in hot alcohol, in solution of 
KI (potassium iodide), and of NaCl (sodium chloride). 
Powerful irritant and caustic. 
Mercurous iodide: Hg2I2, or Hgl, prot-iodide, 
yellow iodide, green iodide, Mercurius Iodatus Flavus. 
“Merc. Iod.” Triturate mercury, iodine and a little 
alcohol. Greenish yellow powder, insoluble in water, 
alcohol and ether. Sunlight turns dark olive green and 
partly decomposes it. Must not be given with KI, as 
Hgl2 (mercuric iodide) is formed. 
Mercuric oxide: (a) Mercurius Praecipitatus 
Ruber, red precipitate, red oxide. HgO. Small shining 
red scales, acrid taste, insoluble, escharotic, stimulant. 
Mercuric oxide: (t>) Yellow oxide. HgO. Pre- 
cipitate solution of HgCl2, with KHO (potassium hydrate). 
Amorphous yellow powder more minute than red oxide, 
hence better in eye troubles. Insoluble. Turns to red 
oxide when heated. 
Mercurous oxide: Black oxide, sub-oxide. Shake 
calomel with solution of KHO. Black, odorless, taste- 
less, insoluble. Decomposes on exposure to light. 
Used in mercurial fumigations. Least irritating oxide. 
Mercuric cyanide: HgCy2, or HgC2N2. (See Or- 
ganic Chemistry.) Mercurius Cyanatus, cyanuret of 
mercury. Receive hydrocyanic acid in vessel containing 
red oxide of mercury in water. Permanent, prismatic, 
white, opaque crystals, soluble in water but sparingly INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
55 
in absolute alcohol; disagreeable styptic taste; poison- 
ous, like HgCl2, but not so irritating in medicinal doses. 
Mercuric nitrate: Hg (N03)2. “ Acid ” nitrate of 
mercury. In solution used as caustic for venereal sores, 
etc. Citrine ointment contains it. Solution made by 
dissolving 1560 grains of red oxide in a mixture of 1740 
grains of nitric acid and 6 fluidrachms of distilled water. 
The Sulphates of mercury: Hg boiled with H, 
S04 yields mercuric sulphate, forming with water an 
oxysulphate (Turpeth mineral); mercuric sulphate tritu- 
rated with Hg yields mercurous sulphate Hg2S04. 
The Sulphides of mercury: Cinnabar or vermilion 
occurs in nature; HgS; resists, as paint, all agents. The 
black sulphide, iEthiop’s Mineral, formed, when solution 
of salt of mercury is precipitated by H2S, or when Hg 
and S, are triturated. Purgative and vermifuge. 
Amnioniated mercury: NH, HgCl. Mercur am- 
monium chloride. White precipitate, Mercurius Precipi- 
tatus Albus. Precipitate solution of corrosive sublimate 
with ammonia. Perfectly white, insoluble, vermifuge 
in “white precipitate ointment.” 
101. Compounds of Mercury in general: 
The mercuric salts more poisonous than the mer- 
curous. Mercuric salts not precipitated by HC1 but by 
H2S, sulphuretted hydrogen (black); mercurous salts 
precipitated (white) by HC1, precipitate blackened by 
ammonia; mercuric salts precipitated red by KI; mer- 
curous salts precipitated greenish-yellow by KI (Potas- 
sium iodide). 
102. “ Mercurius solubilis”: 
Mercurius Solubilis Hahnemanni, the ammonio- 
nitrate of mercury is, according to Kane, dimercuroso- 
ammonium nitrate; according to Mitscherlich, tri- 
mercuroso-ammonium nitrate. “Mercurius vivus” dis- 
solved in cold, strong nitric acid (requiring many days INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
for its complete solution), the salt formed treated with 
alcohol, washed, dissolved in water and precipitated 
(black) with ammonium hydrate (solution of ammonia). 
Called “black oxide.” 
103. “Mercurius nitrosus 
Mercurous nitrate, protonitrate of mercury. Made as 
follows: 20 parts pure mercury, 9 parts concentrated 
nitric acid (specific gravity 1.2) 27 parts pure water. 
104. Compounds of Copper of interest are: 
Cupric sulphate: CuS04 blue vitriol, blue stone, 
blue copperas, Cuprum Sulphuricum. 
Astringent, slightly caustic, emetic. Fine blue crys- 
tals, effloresce to green-white powder; styptic metallic 
taste; soluble in water; acid reaction. 
Ammonio-sulphate of copper: Properly tetram- 
monio-cupric sulphate; Cuprum Ammoniatum; (NH3)4 
Cu S04H.,0. Dissolve cupric sulphate in ammonium 
hydrate. Deep azure-blue powder; soluble, alkaline, 
crystalline. 
105. Compounds of Copper: 
Found in blood and bile. Poisonous. Tests: In 
solution precipitated (black sulphide) by H2S (sulphu- 
retted hydrogen); K4 Fe Cy6 (potass, ferrocyanide) yields 
mahogany-colored precipitate. Ammonium hydrate, an 
azure-blue. 
106. In medicine the term arsenic is applied to the 
oxide of the metal arsenic. 
Arsenic, As203, arsenious oxide, arsenious acid, arsen- 
ious anhydride, white arsenic—Arsenicum Album—occurs 
in several forms. Condensed from sublimation at 752 ° 
F., transparent vitreous mass, sp. gr. 3.738. When at 
temperature slightly less, crystallizes in right rhombic 
prisms. Vitreous arsenic on keeping gradually becomes 
opaque and crystalline. When condensed at 392 ° F., 
it occurs in octohedral crystals, sp. gr. 3.69. This form INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
57 
is also obtained on evaporating saturated aqueous solu- 
tion. Vitreous arsenic is slightly more soluble than 
opaque; 100 parts boiling water, dissolve 12 parts of the 
vitreous; on cooling, about three parts are left in solution. 
Arsenic is tasteless, soluble in hot HC1, in solutions of 
alkalies and of tartaric acid. Heated in reduction tube 
with charcoal, metallic arsenic is deposited in form of 
dark metallic mirror in cooler part of tube. Solutions of 
arsenic yield lemon-yellow precipitate of the sulphide 
with sulphuretted hydrogen insoluble in dilute acids, but 
soluble in KHO (potassium hydrate). Heated to 400 ° 
F. arsenic sublimes without fusing. Thrown into water 
in form of powder it forms a white layer on the surface. 
(See Toxicology.) 
107. The principle of the Marsh test for arsenic de- 
pends on production of hydrogen arsenide (arsenietted 
hydrogen) whenever arsenic in any soluble form is pres- 
ent in a solution evolving hydrogen. Hydrogen is gen- 
erated in the usual way, and the stream of gas issuing 
from mouth of delivery tube ignited. If the gas be 
hydrogen free from arseniuretted hydrogen, the tlame 
will leave no stain on a porcelain lid pressed down upon 
it. If, however, a solution containing arsenic be poured 
in, the color of the flame becomes whitish from presence 
of arsenietted hydrogen, and it will deposit a dark 
metallic spot on the porcelain lid. The arsenietted 
hydrogen is a violent poison, and care must be taken not 
to inhale it in any way. Marsh’s test is interfered with 
by presence of organic matter or nitric acid. 
108. The arseilites are formed theoretically from 
arsenious acid, H:iAsO:) (like H3P03), as a basis: Fow- 
ler’s solution contains potassium hydro-arsenite, HK2 As 
03. Scheele’s green, Cuprum Arsenicosum, is arsenite 
of copper, Cu H As 03, insoluble. Brunswick and 
Schweinfurth greens are the same with addition of 58 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
acetate and carbonate of copper; dangerous poisons. 
Answer to Marsh’s test. 
To test wall-paper for an arsenite: 
Soak a small piece in a little ammonium hydrate solu- 
tion till blue liquid is formed; add a little HC1; boil with 
a strip of pure copper, and the latter takes on a steel- 
gray coating. It is well first to examine the chemicals 
used for arsenic by Marsh’s test. 
109. Arsenic acid: 
H3As04; a violent poison; more soluble, though less 
poisonous, than As203; causes painful ulcers on the skin; 
very deliquescent prismatic crystals [used to replace 
tartaric acid in calico-printing, and to furnish, by its 
action on aniline, the magnificent dye known as “ma- 
genta ”]. The anhydrous acid is an oxide or anhydride 
As205. In solution, neutralized with ammonium hydrate, 
yields brick-red precipitate with Ag NO.,. Answers to 
Marsh’s test, etc. 
The arseniate of sodium: Na,HAs04 (like Na2HP04); 
arseniate of soda, Natrum Arsenicicum; colorless, efflo- 
rescent, soluble, forming alkaline solution. Answers to 
Marsh’s test, and gives brick-red precipitate with 
AgNOs. 
110. Compounds of antimony. 
Ter-chloride of antimony, SbCl3; very violent 
caustic, penetrating deeply into tissues; yellowish-white, 
translucent, becomes like butter in moist air, and called 
“butter of antimony.” To dissolve it, use water having 
fifteen per cent HC1. 
111. “Antimoninm crndnm”: 
Antimonous sulphide, Sb2S3, ter-sulphide or sulphuret. 
112. “ Antimoninm tartaricum ”: 
Tartrate of potassium and antimony, “ tartar emetic ” 
(see tartaric acid). 
113. Tests for compounds of antimony in solution INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
59 
Acidify with HC1 and add H2S (sulphuretted hydro- 
gen); there results an orange-colored precipitate, insolu- 
ble in ammonia. Compounds of antimony give same 
reaction as those of arsenic with Marsh’s test; the arsen- 
ical stain is soluble in calcium hypochlorite solution, but 
the stain caused by antimony is insoluble. 
114. Compounds of bismuth are: 
Sub-nitrate of bismuth; bismuthyl nitrate, BiO 
N03H20, pearl-white, magistery of bismuth. Precipitate 
the nitrate with water; white, insoluble; should not 
change on exposure to sunlight. 
115. Tests for compounds of bismuth: 
Dissolve in dilute acid, add H2S (sulphuretted hydro- 
gen); there results black precipitate, insoluble in dilute 
HC1, and in ammonium sulphide. 
116. Compounds of lead of interest are:— 
Acetate of lead: (See acetic acid.) 
Iodide of lead, Pbl2, bright yellow, sparingly solu- 
ble; precipitate the nitrate with the iodide of potas- 
sium. Plumbum Iodatum. 
Lead nitrate: Pb(N03)2, white, permanent crystals, 
sweetish taste, soluble in water, deodorizing, disinfectant. 
Lead oxide: PbO, litharge; yellowish or orange-col- 
ored scales, insoluble. Diachylon plaster contains it. 
Lead carbonate: PbC03, Plumbum Carbonicum, 
white lead, white, insoluble; really, carbonate and hydrate 
together (PbC03)2 Pb (HO)2. 
Salts of lead,: Poisonous, but acute poisoning rare; 
chronic poisoning common. 
117. Tests for salts of lead: 
With HC1 white precipitate, soluble in boiling water; 
fresh amount acidulated with HC1 gives, with H2S, black 
precipitate insoluble in ammonium sulphide; fresh 
amount with KI gives yellow precipitate; fresh amount 60 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
with H2S04 gives white precipitate; fresh amount with 
chromate of potassium solution gives yellow precipitate. 
118. Compounds of till of interest are: 
Stannous chloride, SnCl2, “tin-salt.” Grayish- 
white, translucent, solid. Soluble in a little water acidu- 
lated with HC1. Used as a reagent, or rather as a reduc- 
ing agent (see mercuric chloride). 
Stannic sulphide, SnS2, mosaic gold. Used as a 
bronze-powder. Made by heating tin-amalgam, sulphur 
and sal-ammoniac. 
119. Compounds of platinum of interest are: 
Chloride of platinum: PtCl4, platinic chloride, 
Platinum Muriaticum. Dissolve Pt in aqua regia; red- 
dish-brown needles, soluble. 
120. Compounds of aluminum of interest are: 
Oxide of aluminum: A1203, alumina; occurs pure 
in corundum, sapphire, ruby ; white, porous, insoluble. 
The homoeopathic “ Alumina ” is the hydrate, Al(HO)3, 
sticks to the tongue, forms stiff paste with water, in- 
soluble. 
Alum: There are several kinds: Alumen is the sul- 
phate of aluminum and potassium, K2A12, (S04)4 24H20; 
commercial alum is the sulphate of ammonium and alu- 
minum, often called ammonia-alum. 
White, sweetish astringent taste, soluble. Heated, 
melts in water of crystallization, swells, gives off water, 
and becomes dried alum (alumen exsiccatum). 
121. Chromic acid: 
Improper term for Cr03, chromic anhydride. Deep red 
crystals, deliquescent, very soluble, caustic; explodes if 
mixed rapidly with glycerin. 
122. Compounds of Iron are of two kinds, ferric and 
ferrous ; 
Ferric compounds: Iron as a pseudo-triad. Fer- 
ric chloride, Fe2 Cl6, per-chloride, sesquichloride, chlor- INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
61 
ide*of iron, Ferrum Muriaticum; orange-yellow, deliques- 
cent, soluble. Liquor ferri chloridi,, U. S. P., contains 
37.8 per cent, of the anhydrous. “ Tincture of Iron ” is 
one part of the Liquor to about two of alqohol 
(Tinctura Ferri Chloridi, II. S. P.); hemostatic, strong 
chalybeate styptic taste, acid reaction, stains teeth and 
acts on them. Ferric Hydrate, Fe2(HO)6, hydrated oxide, 
hydrated peroxide, peroxide, sesquioxide, red oxide, 
Precipitate ferric sulphate or ferric chloride by ammo- 
nia or by sodium hydrate. Reddish-brown powder 
used as antidote to arsenic; must be freshly made. Hy- 
drated oxide of iron with magnesia, U. S. P., made by 
adding magnesia to a solution of ferric sulphate. Ferric 
Sulphate, Fe2 (S04)3, in solution forming “solution of ter- 
sulphate of iron,” U. S. P., color reddish-brown. Ferric 
Sub-sulphate (doubtful composition), Fe40 (S04)5, called 
“Monsel’s solution,” ruby-red; valuable as a hemostatic, 
may be taken internally. Dialyzed Iron, aqueous solu- 
tion of about 5 per cent of ferric hydrate with some fer- 
ric chloride. Ammonia is used in making it, and the 
ammonium chloride formed passed through a dialyzer. 
Ferrous compounds: Iron as a dyad. Ferrous 
salts are usually green and alter in the air to ic salts. 
Ferrous chloride, FeCl2, protochloride; ferrous iodide, 
Fe I2, protiodide, green, volatile, deliquescent, soluble. 
Ferrous sulphide, FeS, protosulphide, sulphuret of iron, 
is used to make H2S (sulphuretted hydrogen). Ferrous 
sulphate, FeS04, green vitriol, copperas, Ferrum Sul- 
phuricum, dissolve iron in 1J parts H2S04 diluted with 
4 parts water; efflorescent, bluish-green crystals, acrid 
styptic taste, soluble in water, insoluble in alcohol, as- 
tringent, irritant, disinfectant. 
124. Tests for compounds of iron: 
A ferric compound in solution gives blue precipitate 
with ferrocyanide of potassium, insoluble in HC1; potas- 62 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
sium sulphocyanate produces even in dilute solutions a 
blood-red coloration not destroyed by HC1, but by solution 
of mercuric chloride. Ferrows salts give no precipitate 
with the sulphocyanate, but white precipitate with the 
ferrocyanide, rapidly becoming blue, and a blue precipi- 
tate with the ferricyanate of potassium. Ammonium 
sulphide is the general re-agent for the salts of iron, 
yielding black sulphide, soluble in HC1. 
125. Compounds of manganese of interest are: 
Manganese carbonate: Reddish-white insoluble 
powder. Manganum Carbonicum. 
Manganese sulphate: MnS04, (-ous sulphate); a 
pale rose-colored salt; astringent bitter taste, soluble. 
Manganese (li-oxide (or binoxide)\ useful in pre- 
paring gases, for which purpose must be pure. Black, 
insoluble. 
Compounds of manganese are found in small amounts 
in the body, generally in company with iron. Com- 
pounds of manganese in solution may be detected by 
ammonium sulphide, as they yield a flesh-colored pre- 
cipitate, soluble even in acetic acid. 
[For equations, molecular weights and processes of 
manufacture belonging to Inorganic Chemistry see Ap- 
pendix.] ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
Chapter I. 
1. Engel’s classification of organic substances: 
Hydrocarbides, alcohols, acids and salts, aldehydes, 
others, amines, amides, alkaloids, proteids, nitrogenized 
products. 
2. The principal elements which occur in organic 
chemistry are: 
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, phos- 
phorus and iron. 
3. A radicle: 
A combination of some two or more of these elements 
having an equivalence of its own; thus, the radical, 
methyl, CH:j, is a monad. 
4. Important hytlrocar hides: 
Marsh gas, essence of turpentine, benzol. 
5. Marsh gas: 
Methane, hydride of the radical methyl (C H3) H, found 
bubbling on the surface of stagnant pools, formed by 
decay of organic matter where not enough oxygen to 
form carbonic acid and water; it occurs between layers 
of coal, and is called “fire-damp;” odorless gas, ex- 
plodes on application of flame if mixed with its volume 
of air. After explosion carbon di-oxide is formed, which 
is called “ after-damp.” 
6. Essence of Turpentine: 
Ci0H16, procured from turpentine, a viscous exuda- 
tion; turpentine contains a resin, called colophony resin,, 
in solution in an oil, which, when distilled off from the 
resin is called essence of turpentine, oil of turpentine, 
terebinthina. Colorless, mobile liquid, having pecul- 
iar, aromatic, and disagreeable odor; acrid, caustic taste; 
does not mix with water; soluble in alcohol; dissolves 
iodine, sulphur, phosphorus, fixed oils, resins, etc.; ex- 
63 64 
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
posed to the air absorbs oxygen, becomes thicker, finally 
resinous. After prolonged contact with air, becomes 
ozonized. 
7. Benzol: 
C6 Hc. Benzene, belongs to so-called aromatic com- 
pounds; is not what is commercially called benzine; 
colorless, mobile, peculiar odor, insoluble in water, but 
soluble in alcohol and ether; dissolves iodine, sulphur, 
phosphorus, and much organic matter; burns easily with 
brilliant smoky flame. 
8. “Benzine ” is not benzole, but a distillation product 
of petroleum. 
9. Nitro-henzole: 
Benzole added to nitric acid, oily, yellowish liquid, 
having odor of oil of bitter almonds, and called artificial 
oil of bitter almonds; sweetish taste; very poisonous 
even by inhalation. 
10. Naphthalene: 
C10H8, coal tar product; resembles camphor, being a 
white crystalline body, inflammable, insoluble, slowly 
evaporates, vapor destructive to insects, antiseptic. Yields 
[with H2S04 and KHO] naphthol. 
11. Important alcohols are: 
Spirit of wine, wood spirit, fusel oil. Under this head 
also classify cholesterin, glycerin, the sugars, starches, 
gums, phenols. 
12. Common alcohol: 
Ethyl alcohol (C2H5) HO or C2H60, hydrate of the 
radicle ethyl, product of the distillation of fermented 
liquors; volatile, colorless liquid, pemiliar odor and taste; 
lighter than water; mixes in all proportions with distilled 
water; burns with a faint bluish flame without smoke; 
dissolves gases better than water does, but salts (except 
HgCl2) not so well; dissolves resins, ethers, essential oils, 
fats, alkaloids, many organic acids, and in general sub- ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
65 
stances rich in hydrogen; precipitates albumin from the 
urine, has strong attraction for water. 
13. Spirit of wine : 
Homoeopathic alcohol is spirit of wine entirely free 
from fusel oil, re-distilled, and the product reduced to 87 
per cent (Tralles), or to a specific gravity of 0.83, by 
adding distilled water. Alcohol, U. S. P., contains 91 
per cent of alcohol by weight; spirit of ivine 84 per cent. 
14. Dilute alcohol : 
Seven parts alcohol, having a specific gravity 0.83 
and three parts distilled water, the mixture having a 
specific gravity of 0.89. Dilute alcohol, U. S. P., equal 
weights water and alcohol. Specific gravity 0.928. 
15. Absolute alcohol: 
Commercial usage accepts as absolute, alcohol of not 
less than about 99.5 to 99.7 per cent. Its specific gravity 
at 60 ° F. is 0.7938. Boils at 172.4 ° F. 
16. Tests for purity of alcohol: 
Diluted with distilled water in equal amounts should 
yield no foreign odor, nor show opalescence (oil or resin); 
when few drops are rubbed between the hands should 
yield no foreign odor; fresh amount of alcohol, to which 
few drops of solution of AgNO:1 (silver nitrate) are 
added and the mixture exposed to bright sunlight should 
show no change; to detect fusel oil, add slowly to fresh 
amount of alcohol its own weight of pure, strong sul- 
phuric acid, and if alcohol is pure it remains colorless, 
but if fusel oil be present a reddish color will develop ; 
to test absolute alcohol for water, shake with sulphate 
of copper (which has been made anhydrous by heating 
till white), and if the alcohol is of proper strength 
the copper salt will remain white; if it contains water 
will turn bluish or blue. Another test for absolute 
alcohol is to mix with an equal volume of pure benzole, 
and if the alcohol be anhydrous (without water), the 66 
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
mixture will be clear. Lastly, as a test for absolute alco- 
hol it is recommended that a piece of anhydrous baryta 
be dropped into it, which will remain unchanged if water 
is absent, but otherwise will fall to a powder. 
17. Wood-spirit: 
(CH,)HO, methyl alcohol, hydrate of the radicle 
methyl; distilled from wood; called also pyroligneous 
ether, pyroxylic spirit; wood naphtha is composed chiefly 
of it. Cheaper than alcohol; disagreeable odor and 
taste, inflammable, solvent for resins, etc. Methylated 
spirit is a mixture of spirit of wine with 10 per cent 
wood spirit. 
18. Fulfil oil: 
Amylic alcohol (C5Hn) HO, or C5Hr,0, hydrate of 
radicle amyl, fusel oil, potato spirit; always a product of 
the fermentation of sugar along with alcohol; colorless 
liquid, having a nauseous irritating odor, burning taste, 
insoluble in water; soluble in alcohol, ether and essen- 
tial oils. 
19. Cholesterin: 
C2fiHuO, found in solution in bile and nearly all liquids 
of body. Pathologically in cysts, tuberculous masses, 
cancer, lens of eye in cataract, in vitreous in Synchisis 
Scintillans, in biliary calculi; white, odorless, solid, fatty 
to the touch, crystallizes in plates. Gives red color when 
treated with H,S04 and a little chloroform; the red color 
becomes blue, then green, then disappears. 
20. Glycerin: 
C3H5(HO)3, found in oils and fats and obtained from 
them. Thick, syrupy liquid, colorless or straw-yellow, 
unctuous, inodorous, sharp sweet taste; soluble in oils, 
alcohol, water; insoluble in ether and chloroform; valu- 
able as a solvent for many medicinal substances, form- 
ing glycerites; should give no precipitate with ammo- 
nium oxalate solution, nor change color on addition of ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
67 
little ammonium sulphide. Emollient and antiseptic. 
Specific gravity 1.225. 
21. To classify the sugars, starches, etc.: 
Three classes, glucoses, sucroses, amyloses. 
22. Important glucoses: 
Glucose, CgH.Og, raisin sugar, diabetic sugar, grape 
sugar, dextrose, starch sugar; found in vegetables, fruits, 
honey, in liver, small intestines, in chyle after eating 
sugars, in blood, in urine of foetus during intra-uterine 
life, in eggs, in urine of pregnancy, confinement and 
lactation, especially after weaning; in diabetes in the 
urine, saliva, sweat and nearly all liquids of the body; in 
urine after puncture 4th ventricle; white, inodorous, solu- 
ble in its own weight of water; one third as sweet as cane 
sugar. [Lsevulose sugar) is a modification turn- 
ing ray of polarized light to left, while dextrose (grape 
sugar) turns it to the right; dextrose crystallizes, but 
lsevulose, which is much sweeter, can only be obtained as 
a, syrup.] 
23. Tests for Glucose: 
Ferments directly with yeast and with decaying ani- 
mal matter. Solutions to which liquor potassae is added 
turn yellow, then red-brown on being heated. Reduces 
copper salts: add to solution of glucose, caustic potash 
solution to which few drops of dilute cupric sulphate 
solution have been added, and heat. A red precipitate 
of cuprous oxide is thrown down. (Trommer’s test.) For 
Fehling’s test, etc., see Chap. VII. 
24. Commercial “glucose 
The term “ glucose ” is often applied to starch-syrup, 
the solid glucose being called starch-suyar (grape sugar). 
Both may be made from starch. 
25. Important sucroses: 
Cane sugar, milk sugar. 68 
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
26. Cane sugar: 
Saccharose, cane sugar, beet sugar, C12H22On, does not 
occur in the body; white, inodorous, very sweet. Cold 
water dissolves three times its weight; insoluble in alco- 
hol. Converted by ferments first into mixture of glucose 
and ltevulose, called invert sugar. Blackens with H2S04. 
(Glucose unites with the acid and does not blacken.) 
27. Milk-sugar: 
Lactose, sugar of milk, saccharum lactis, C12H22Ou H„0, 
one of the constituents of milk of mammals; rarely 
found in vegetables. Coagulate skimmed milk with a 
little acetic acid, heat, filter, concentrate filtrate by evapo- 
ration, let crystallize, dissolve in boiling water and 
re-crystallize. Odorless, white, hard, occurs in four- 
sided, rhombic prisms; taste faintly sweet, gritty be- 
tween the teeth; soluble in seven parts cold water, 
one of boiling; insoluble in even sixty per cent 
alcohol; not charred by H2S04; not directly fermented 
by yeast, but easily when cheese is added; does not form 
a syrup with water. 
28. Tests for purity of saccharum lactis: 
Must be perfectly white, not hygroscopic, nor have any 
rancid, musty, sour, or other foreign smell or taste. If 
adulterated with cane sugar, becomes more soluble and 
sweeter; if .with alum, gives in solution a white precipitate, 
wTith a few drops of potassium hydrate solution; if with 
copper salts, gives reddish-brown precipitate with potas- 
sium ferro-cyanide solution; if with chloride of sodium or 
phosphates, gives white precipitate with nitrate of silver 
solution; if with sulphuric acid or sulphates, white pre- 
cipitate with barium nitrate solution; if prepared from 
sour milk, reddens litmus paper when in solution. If 
with starch, see Iodine. 
29. The amyloses are starch, dextrine, gum, etc. 
Starcll is found in grains of cereals and in potatoes; ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
69 
food of plants becoming sugar as they grow; insoluble 
in cold water, alcohol and ether; in boiling water it 
becomes gelatinous, but does not dissolve; heated dry it 
becomes dextrine, which is converted into glucose by 
action of diastase (a ferment found in cross-spired bar- 
ley). Tests: See Iodine. Its formula is C6H10O5. 
Dextrin: C6H10O5, is an amorphous, yellowish-white, 
soluble substance; does not give blue coloration with 
iodine; basis of mucilage. Keduces alkaline copper 
solutions. 
30. Glycogen: 
Found by Claude Bernard to be always present in 
liver; white, powdery, odorless, very soluble ; solutions 
opalescent or milky, converted into glucose (dextro- 
glucose) by animal ferments, as hepatic extractive mat- 
ter. With iodine, gives red violet coloration. 
31. Carbolic acid: 
Acidum Carbolicum, phenic acid, phenylic alcohol or 
hydrate, phenol (CBH5) HO, is the hydrate of the radicle 
of a series found in coal oils, and is hardly a true acid. 
Found in the urine of cows, pathologically in that of 
men; made from distillation of “dead oil” of coal tar 
Great colorless crystals, disagreeable odor, caustic taste, 
soluble in twenty times its weight of water, wholly solu- 
ble in alcohol, ether and glycerin. The crystals liquefy 
on exposure to warmth. Light colors it pinkish. Anti- 
septic, caustic, white stain on tissues. Strongly poisonous. 
32. Tests for carbolic acid: 
Gives a blue color with neutral solution of ferric chlor- 
ide. With bromine water in excess, gives a yellowish 
white flocculent precipitate. 
33. The sulpho carbolate of sodium: 
Phenyl-sulphate of sodium, NaCfiH5S04, 2H,0. Dis- 
solve carbolic in strong sulphuric acid, convert into 70 
ORGANIC chemistry; 
sulpho-carbolate of barium, and treat with sodium car- 
bonate. White soluble crystals, inodorous, sharp taste. 
34. Picric acid: 
Carbazotic acid, tri-nitro-phenol (C6H.2)(N02)3H0. Dis- 
solve carbolic acid in nitric acid and boil until there 
are no more vapors. Bright yellow glistening crystals, 
slightly soluble, bitter tasting; coloring power very great, 
giving permanent yellow to silk, wool and tissues. It 
coagulates albumin, peptone, etc. Its salts are used in 
explosives. Acidum Picricum. 
35. Thymols: 
C10HuO, numerous. The one found in essence of wild 
thyme is used in medicine, and may be procured by 
treating the essence with potassium hydrate; agreeable 
smelling liquid, insoluble in water, antiseptic. 
36. Important organic acids: 
Acetic, butyric, valerianic, stearic, benzoic, lactic, sal- 
icylic, oxalic, malic, gallic, tannic, tartaric, citric. 
37. The acid of vinegar: 
Acetic acid H (C2H302), corresponds to the radicle 
ethyl (C2H5). Found in vomited matters during digestive 
troubles; also, is sweat, muscle-juice, and spleen. Product 
of fermentation of wTine or cider; colorless liquid, piqu- 
ant odor, corrosive, forms acetates which are soluble 
and contain the radicle C2H302. Glacial acetic acid is 
used in medicine, made from sodium acetate, is crys- 
talline below 48° F., containing about 84 per cent of 
acetic anhydride, hygroscopic, and should be kept in well- 
stopped bottles; should give no precipitate with solutions 
of silver nitrate, barium nitrate, or hydrogen sulphide; 
should not decolorize solution of indigo. Three officinal 
forms of acetic acid: Acidum aceticum, Acidum aceticum 
dilutum, Acidum aceticum glaciate; contain 36,6, and 
99 per cents respectively of pure acetic acid. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
71 
38. Spirit of Mindererus: 
Ammonium Acetate: Am (C2H302). Saturate dilute 
acetic acid with ammoniutn carbonate and filter. Color- 
less, pungent, odorless liquid; should be freshly made. 
39. Yerdigris: 
Really an oxyacetate of copper—that is, an acetate of 
cuprous oxide—pale blue-green in color. 
40. “Cuprum aceticum:” 
Acetate of copper, cupric acetate, Cu (C2H302)2 H.,0. 
Dissolve verdigris in dilute acetic acid, evaporate slowly 
and allow to crystallize; dark bluish-green, soluble in 
fourteen parts of cold water. Called also verdigris. 
41. Sugar of lead : 
Plumbic acetate, Pb (C2H302)2 3H20. Treat acetic 
acid with excess of litharge. Colorless, glistening, trans- 
parent crystals, efflorescent, soluble, sweetish astringent 
taste. Aqueous solutions become turbid from presence 
of carbon di-oxide of the air, causing formation of car- 
bonate of lead which is insoluble. Plumbum Aceticum. 
42. Sub-acetate of lead : 
The acetate and oxide, basic acetate, Pb(C2H302)2(Pb0)2 
Colorless liquid, more poisonous than the acetate. Pre- 
cipitated by solutions of gum. Used in Goulard’s ex- 
tract, Liquor pluvibi subacetatis, a 25 per cent solution 
of the sub-acetate. 
43. Butyric acid: 
H(C4H702). Corresponds to radicle butyl; found as 
glyceric ether in butter and fatty matters. Found in 
stomach during digestive troubles; remarkable for pow- 
erful odor of rancid butter. Gives odor to perspiration, 
hence disagreeable odor of close rooms. 
44. Yaleriauic acid: 
H (C3H902). Corresponds to radicle amyl, and may 
be obtained from amylic alcohol (fusel oil); strong odor 72 
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
of valerian; gives odor to the perspiration; forms valerian- 
ates which have disgusting odors. 
45. Soaps and Fats: 
Soaps are salts of the fatty acids—palmitic, stearic and 
oleic, and formed in general by adding an alkali to a fat; 
thus olive oil boiled with potassium hydrate, gives oleate, 
etc., of potassium, or soft soap; boiled with sodium hy- 
drate gives oleate, etc., of sodium, or hard soap. Hard 
soap is soluble in water, but insoluble in salt water. 
True fats are compound ethers of glycerin; pure are 
colorless, odorless, tasteless, stain paper, insoluble in 
water, and difficultly in alcohol, soluble in ether, etc.; 
some keep when pure; many, however become rancid 
from albuminous impurities causing decomposition. When 
soaps are formed glycerin is set free. 
46. Benzoic acid: 
Acidum Benzoicum, H(C.H502), occurs already formed 
in benzoin—it may be made from it, and also from the 
urine of cattle. Permanent, white, feathery, soft, light 
flakes, insoluble, odorless when pure; should not change 
color of potassium permanganate solution in five minutes 
in proportion of one part of acid to fifty of water. Sol- 
uble in alcohol; heated, its vapor provokes coughing. 
Its salts are benzoates, and are soluble, except those of 
the heavy metals. 
Neutral perchloride of iron gives yellowish-brown pre- 
cipitate of ferric benzoate. 
47. Lactic Acid: 
H(C3H303). Found in sour milk, produced by the 
transformation of the sugar of milk into lactic acid by 
the influence of decomposing casein. Syrupy colorless 
odorless liquid, soluble in water and alcohol. No direct 
test, as most lactates are soluble; hence necessary to ob- 
tain crystals of its salts and examine them with micro- 
scope. Acidum Lacticum. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
73 
48. Lactate of iron: 
Ferrara Lacticum, ferrous lactate, Fe (C3H.03)2 3H>0. 
Boil dilute lactic acid with iron filings. Whitish crys- 
talline powder, sweetish metallic taste, soluble in 50 parts 
of cold water and 10 of boiling. Ferrum Lacticum. 
49. Lacto-pliospliates: 
Solutions of phosphates in lactic acid. 
50. Salicylic acid: 
Oxy-benzoic acid, Acidum Salicylicum. H(C-H503). 
Made from sodium carbolate and carbon di-oxide, form- 
ing sodium salicylate, which yields the acid on decom- 
position by HC1. Odorless, white and lustrous masses 
of fine, small, colorless needles, soluble in boiling water 
and in alcohol; tasteless at first,- but afterwards sweet 
and astringent, causing acridity of the fauces; soluble in 
cold water containing three parts of sodium phosphate. 
Antiseptic and disinfectant. Heated dry in a test tube, 
sublimes in beautiful needles before melting-point is 
reached, and at higher temperature is dissipated. Car- 
bolic acid adulteration detected with bromine water. 
Salicylate of sodium is white and soluble, hence better 
suited for administration; Natrum Salicylicum. 
51. Oxalic acid: H2(C204). 
Occurs in combination in Oxalis and in rhubarb. Made 
from sawdust by action of caustic alkali. Colorless, 
transparent crystals, readily soluble, odorless, intensely 
acid taste. Dangerous poison. Useful for removing ink 
and copper stains. Test: solutions of lime, forming oxalate 
of calcium. Also gives white precipitate with nitrate of 
silver. Mistaken sometimes for Epsom salts. Most oxa- 
lates are soluble, except calcium oxalate. Acidum 
Oxalicum. 
52. Malic acid: 
Occurs in rhubarb, in tobacco leaves, berries of the 
mountain ash, and in many fruits. 74 
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
53. Tannic acid: 
CuH10O9. Gallo-tannic acid, tannin. Most tannins are 
glucosides of gallic acid. Have power to form insoluble 
compounds with gelatin and albumin, and to throw down 
ferric salts as a black precipitate, hence leather, and ink. 
Officinal tannic acid is prepared from nut-galls. Pale 
and yellow amorphous masses, soluble in water, forming 
yellow-brown, tolerably clear solution in proportion of 
one part to five of water. Should make a clear solution in 
10 parts of 90 per cent alcohol. Mixed with antiseptic 
substances does not turn into gallic acid. Acidum 
Tannicum. 
54 Tartaric acid: 
H2 (C4H406), Acidum Tartaricum. Occurs in grapesy 
pineapples, tamarinds and other fruits as a tartrate. 
Prepared from crude tartar. Colorless, transparent crys- 
tals, soluble in water. Solutions are strongly acid and 
deposit fungous growth. 
55. Cream of tartar: 
Potassium acid tartrate. KH(C4H406), made from argols 
or crude tartar a deposit on the sides of wine casks; 
odorless, gritty taste, white, almost insoluble. 
56. Rochelle salt: 
Potassium sodium tartrate, KNa(C4H406)4Hi,0. Large, 
transparent, colorless, slightly efflorescent crystals, mildly 
saline and bitter taste, readily soluble. 
57. Composition of seidlitz powders: 
The blue paper contains Rochelle salt and bi-carbon- 
ate of sodium; the white paper contains tartaric acid. 
58. Tartar emetic: 
Tartrate of potassium and a radicle called stibyl, 
Antimonium Tartaricum,Tartarus Stibiatus, potassio-anti- 
monium oxytartrate, [K](Sb0)(C4H406). Made from potas- 
sium acid tartrate and oxide of antimony; colorless, ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
75 
transparent crystals, opaque on exposure to the air; 
sweetish metallic taste; soluble in fourteen parts of cold 
water. 
59. Citric acid: 
H3(C6H50 T); occurs in large amount in lemon juice, 
orange juice, etc.; colorless odorless very acid crystals; 
soluble; solutions become mouldy and decompose. Used 
in urinalysis instead of acetic. Acidurn Citricum. 
Citrate Of iron is made by dissolving ferric hydrate 
in it. Citrate of magnesium is employed only in solution, 
and is a mixture of solution of carbonate of magnesium 
in solution of citric acid, and syrup of citric acid, to 
which are added bi-carbonate of potassium and water. 
Citrate of iron and quinine is made by dissolving quinine 
in a hot solution of citrate of iron. Citrate of iron and 
strychnine is made by mixing a solution of strychnine 
and citric acid with solution of citrate of iron and ammo- 
nium. So-called “effervescing citrates” often contain 
tartaric instead of citric acid. Lithium citrate made by 
dissolving lithium carbonate in citric acid. 
60. Important aldehydes: 
Aldehyde, chloral, acetone, camphors. [A derivative of 
aldehyde, used in medicines, is called paraldehyde, 
c6h12o3; is a hypnotic.] 
61. Derivation of name Chloral: 
Chlorine and aZcohol; made by passing a rapid stream 
of dry chlorine into pure absolute alcohol and heating; 
C2HC1)0 (aldehyde is C2H40 and chloral exchanges Cl3 
for H3); colorless oily liquid; mixed with water, forms 
a white solid called chloral hydrate C2HC130, H20. 
Chloral hydrate is soluble in water, should be neutral, 
and give no reaction with AgN03, nor become moist on 
exposure to the air; antiseptic, and valuable for preserv- 
ing anatomical specimens, urine, etc. Chloralum. 76 
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
62. Acetone: C3H,.0: 
Colors ferric chloride a dark reddish-brown; probably 
gives chloroform odor to many diabetic urines. 
63. Common Camphor: 
C10H,6O; concrete substance derived from camphor- 
laurel tree; soft tough cakes, easily powdered on addi- 
tion of a little alcohol; translucent, strong fragrant odor, 
aromatic bitter cooling taste, volatile, inflammable; lighter 
than water, slightly soluble, but soluble in alcohol, 
ether, chloroform; dissolved in alcohol, forms spirits of 
camphor, from which it may be precipitated by water; 
dissolved in water containing a little alcohol and a little 
magnesium carbonate, forms camphor-water; boiled with 
bromine, forms mono-bromated camphor. Gum-camphor 
has a rotatory movement in wrater which is stopped by 
the least trace of fat. Camphor is a local irritant, stim- 
ulant, and powerful poison. Campliora. 
64. Important ethers and their derivatives are: 
Ether, chloroform, iodoform, fats and glucosides. 
65. Common ether: 
Ethyl oxide, sulphuric ether, (C.,H5)20; made by distill- 
ing sulphuric acid and alcohol in a retort; a neutral 
volatile colorless liquid; burning taste, strong odor, very 
inflammable; vapor 24 times as heavy as air, therefore 
flows and will inflame from contiguous flame; anaesthetic 
internally and locally; valuable solvent for resins, oils 
and hydrocarbons. JEther fortior. IT. S. P. 94 per 
cent pure ether, 6 per cent alcohol, with a little water. 
66. Chloroform: Methenyl chloride, CHC13; trichlor 
methane. 
Distil alcohol with bleaching powder: thin colorless 
liquid; neutral reaction; peculiar agreeable etherial odor; 
burning sweetish taste: burns with a sluggish green 
flame; nearly insoluble in water, soluble in ether; dissolves 
phosphorus, sulphur, iodine, and many of the alkaloids ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
77 
and their salts. Anaesthetic. Pure chloroform has a 
specific gravity of 1.502; decomposes under influence of 
light; addition of one-half per cent alcohol prevents 
this decomposition, but reduces the specific gravity at 
60 ° F. to 1.4936. Should evaporate without residue; 
shaken with half its volume of pure H, S04 should im- 
part no color, even after twenty-four hours; shaken with 
three volumes of water, tested with litmus and with silver 
nitrate solution, should show no change. Heated with 
KHO should not yield a brown color. 
67. Iodoform: 
CHI3. Prepared by adding alcoholic solution of potas- 
sium hydrate to tincture of iodine, avoiding excess; 
lemon-yellow, glistening, crystalline plates; greasy feel- 
ing, saffron-like odor, sweetish taste, somewhat volatile; 
insoluble in water, soluble in 75 parts of cold 95 per cent 
alcohol, but in 10 of boiling. Soluble in ether, chloro- 
form, carbon disulphide, in essential and fatty oils. May 
be dissolved in liquid cosmoline. 
68. A receipt for disguising the odor of iodoform: 
Carbolic acid, 1 part; iodoform, 2 parts; powder; mix 
well. 
69. Glucosides: 
Ethers of the glucoses; boiled with dilute acid they 
take up water and yield glucose. Their names end in -in. 
70. Important glucosides: 
Amygdaliil, from bitter almonds, white and soluble; 
salicill, from willow-bark, white, soluble, very bitter, 
colored red by H2S04; picrotoxin, bitter, poisonous 
principle of Cocculus Indicus. 
71. Substitution ammoniums are shown by termina- 
tions: An amine formula is derived from that of am- 
monia gas as a basis, one or more alcohol radicles being 
exchanged for the hydrogen. 78 
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
72. Important Amines: 
Methylamine, propylamine, neurin, lecithin, aniline, 
indican, lencin, tyrosin, taurin, creatin, creatinin. 
73. Aniline: 
Phenyl-amine (C6H5)NH2, radicle phenyl takes place of 
one atom of hydrogen in formula of ammonia, NH3. 
Reduce nitro-benzole with iron and acetic acid; colorless 
liquid, disagreeable odor, bitter taste, insoluble in water; 
yields, when made from crude nitrobenzole, brilliant dyes 
with oxidizing agents. 
74. Prussic acid: 
Acidum Hydrocyanicum, HCN or HCy, cyanhydric acid. 
Exists ready formed in juice of the bitter cassava; may be 
obtained from bitter almonds, kernels of plums and 
peaches, apple seeds, cherry laurel, etc.; clear, colorless, 
volatile liquid, peculiar pungent odor. The officinal acid 
contains about 2 per cent of the anhydrous acid. For 
homoeopathic use the officinal acid is mixed with equal 
parts by wreight of distilled water. The best liquid test 
is to add sulphide of ammonium and then a ferric salt 
in solution; after the addition of the latter a deep blood- 
red color is observed, owing to the formation of sulpho- 
cyanate of iron. 
75. Amides: 
An amide formula is derived from that of ammonia 
as a basis, by substituting acid radicles for one or more 
atoms of the hydrogen of ammonia. 
76. Important Amides: 
Urea, oxaluric acid, allantoin. 
77. Urea: 
Carbamide, CH4N20, found in the urine of man 
and of various animals. Pathologically, in considera- 
ble quantities, in the blood, and in nearly all the liquids 
of the body; may be made by heating the cyanate of ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
79 
ammonium; colorless crystals, fresh taste, freely soluble, 
inalterable, neutral. Tests: (See Urine.) 
78. Alkalamides: 
Bodies whose formulae are derived from that of 
ammonia as a basis, by substituting in place of the hy- 
drogen, both alcohol radicles and acid radicles. 
79. Alkalamides of importance: 
Hippuric acid, taurocholic acid, glycocholic acid. 
80. Hippuric Acid: 
Exists in abundance in the urine of herbivora; results 
from transformation of benzoic acid. Its crystals resem- 
ble those of triple phosphate. (See Urine.) Chaptek II.—ALKALOIDS. 
81. Alkaloids are artificial, natural or cadaveric. Ar- 
tificial alkaloids are the various amines, as methyl-amine, 
ethyl-amine, eta Methyl-amine is a gas, ethyl-amine a 
liquid, propyl-amine a volatile oil. 
82. The Natural Alkaloids: 
A class of substances chiefly of vegetable origin, often 
active principles of plants, supposed to be like alkalies, 
hence name. Those containing no oxygen are volatile; 
those having oxygen are non-volatile. As a rule, are solu- 
ble in alcohol, ether, chloroform; contain nitrogen, turn 
plane of polarized ray of light to left (with few exceptions), 
furnish, with platinic chloride, double chlorides; have 
bitter taste, resemble alkalies in uniting with acids to 
form salts, of wrhich the sulphates, nitrates, chlorides, and 
acetates are usually soluble, and the oxalates, tartrates 
and tannates usually insoluble; in solution, are precip- 
itated by many re-agents, including iodine dissolved in 
iodide of potassium; very poisonous. 
88. Yolatile Alkaloids: 
Nicotine, also called nicotia, nicotina, nicotylia, nicotin, 
C10H14N2, exists in seeds and leaves of tobacco. Colorless 
or slightly yellow, highly liquid, strongly alkaline, sharp 
burning taste, soluble in water, alcohol, ether; almost 
insohible in chloroform and carbon di-sulphide. Exposed 
to the air, becomes brownish and viscid. Boils at 464 ° F. 
Coniine, also called conia, conylia, conin, cicutin, C8H15 
N. Alkaloid of poison hemlock (Conium Maculatum), 
colorless, oily liquid, having odor of urine of mice; 
soluble in alcohol and ether. Very poisonous. Boils at 
at 414 ° F. Sp. gr. 0.89. ‘ « 
84. The alkaloids of opium: 
These may be classified as follows: Toxic, viz., the- 
baine, codeine, papaverine, narceine, morphine, narco- 
80 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
81 
tine ; convulsive: those already mentioned ; soporific: 
narceine, morphine and codeine. 
The alkaloids of opium are non-volatile. 
85. Morphine: 
Morphine, morphia, C17H19N03, exists as meco- 
nate of morphine in opium, which is the concrete, 
milky juice exuding on incising the unripe capsules 
of Papaver Somniferum, or white poppy. Morphine is 
crystalline, transparent or white, alkaline, having bitter 
taste, soluble in 1200 parts cold water, and 500 parts 
boiling, and 45 to 50 of cold, and 80 of hot 90 per cent 
alcohol, in 150 parts of chloroform; almost insoluble in 
ether, benzole, ammonia and fixed oils, but soluble in the> 
fixed alkalies and in lime water; forms salts with acids, 
which are white, and soluble in water and in alcohol, in- 
soluble in ether. Morphium. 
86. Tests for morphine or its salts: Gives gold yellow' 
color, somewhat slowly appearing, with nitric acid. There 
are many other tests also. 
87. The hydrochlorate or muriate of morphine: 
(Should be called hydrochloride). The alkaloids seem to 
differ from the alkalies in not replacing the hydrogen of 
those acids with which they form salts ; thus the formula 
for the salt prepared by neutralizing dilute HC1 with 
pure morphine is C17H19N0.„HC1. Morphium Muriaticum. 
88. Sulphate of morphine: (Cl7H19N03)2 
colorless crystals, soluble in 2 parts of water. Morphium, 
Sulphuricum. 
89. The alkaloids of Nux Yomica: 
Strychnine, Strychninum, strychnia, C2I H22 N2 02_ 
Occurs in seed of Strychnos Nux Yomica, or poison-nut- 
tree ; also in Strychnos Ignatia, or St. Ignatius bean, found 
as strychnate or acetate. Small colorless crystals, odor- 
less, very bitter, solutions intensely bitter ; soluble in 7,000 
parts cold water, 3,500 boiling, 200 cold and 20 of ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
boiling 90 per cent alcohol, 1250 of ether, 300 of gly- 
cerin, and 5 of chloroform. Almost insoluble in absolute 
alcohol, but soluble in fixed and volatile oils. Brucine 
is the other alkaloid and is more soluble than strychnine'. 
90. Test for Strychnine and its salts: Dissolve a 
few crystals in a few drops of cold, pure, sulphuric acid, 
.and touch the solution with a crystal of potassium bi- 
chromate. There results a purple or a violet coloration, 
soon fading to red, ultimately to green; if the strychnine 
contains much brucine it will give a red coloration with 
nitric acid. 
91. Important salt of strychnine: The sulphate, 
Strychninum Sulphuricum,” (C21 H22 N2 02)2 H2 SO,, 
colorless neutral crystals, soluble in 10 parts cold water, 
and readily in dilute alcohol. 
92. The principal alkaloids of Cinchona: 
Quinine, cinchonine, quinidine, cinchonidine, quinicine, 
cinchonicine, quinoidine. 
93. Quinine: 
“Cliininum purum,” Quinia, C20 H2t N2 02. Snow white, 
odorless, very bitter alkaline powder, soluble in 364 parts 
cold and 200 boiling water, soluble in alcohol, ether, 
and chloroform. 
94. Sulphate of quinine: 
Chininum sulphuricum, basic sulphate of quinine, 
(C20H24 N2 02)2 H2 S04. Very white loose masses of fine 
silky flexible needles, odorless, extremely bitter, soluble 
in about 750 parts cold water, 25 to 30 boiling water, 
65 of 90 per cent alcohol, 120 of dilute alcohol, slightly 
in ether, not at all in chloroform. Solutions are neutral 
in re-action. Sulphate of quinine is very soluble in acidu- 
lated water. 
95. Test for quinine or its salts: 
Rub up one part of the powder with 200 parts chlorine 
water, then add 25 parts of ammonium hydrate solution. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
A dark green resin-like precipitate occurs, dissolved by 
dilute acids with brown coloration. The chlorine water 
must be strong and freshly prepared. 
96. Tests for purity of sulphate of quinine: 
Should dissolve in pure colorless H2S04 without 
effervescence, the solution remaining clear and colorless. 
One part of the salt should dissolve in 100 parts of 
absolute alcohol, forming a transparent colorless solu- 
tion, which, treated with an equal amount of ether, should 
remain clear. One gramme of the salt heated on a por- 
celain dish on a water bath for twelve hours should 
weigh .86 grammes. Heated on platinum foil should 
first carbonize, then burn, without leaving any residue. 
97. A simple method of telling the sulphates of 
morphine, strychnine, and quinine, ONE from 
ANOTHER: 
To all three, in powdered form in separate dishes, add 
nitric acid; morphine gives a red coloration, changing 
to yellow, rather slowly appearing (strychnine if con- 
taining brucine gives a red, rapidly appearing); quinine, 
no red. To distinguish strychnine from morphine use 
the sulphuric acid and potassium bichromate test, 
obtaining a purple with strychnine, and a green with 
morphine. To tell strychnine from quinine use same 
test. To tell morphine from quinine use nitric acid, 
which gives a red color to the morphine but not to the 
quinine. • 
98. Alkaloids having power to dilate the ptipil: 
The mydriatic alkaloids are atropine, hyoscyamine, 
and hyoscine. 
Hyoscyamine is said to be identical with daturine and 
duboisine. 
99. Atropine: Alkaloid of Belladonna, C17H23N03, 
used chiefly in form of sulphate. 84 
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
100. The sulphate of atropine: 
White crystalline powler, or colorless silky prisms; sol- 
uble in 3 parts cold water and in 10 parts 90 per cent alco- 
hol; insoluble in ether, chloroform, and benzole; solutions 
neutral, of disagreeable bitter taste; no direct test for the 
salts of atropine except that of dilating the pupil, which 
property is shared in by hyoscyamine. (Various tests 
are constantly appearing, and may prove satisfactory.) 
101. Alkaloids having power to contract pupil: 
Pilocarpine the alkaloid of jaborandi, and eserine 
called also physostigmine the alkaloid of the Calabar 
bean. These are called myotics. Pilocarpine increases 
perspiration. (See Appendix for other alkaloids, tests, 
etc.) Chapter III.—PROTEIDS. 
102. Proteids are amorphous substances, the basis of 
all tissues of the body. 
103. Ralfe’s classification of them: Native albumins, 
globulins, fibrins, modified albumins, peptones, albumin- 
oids or allied albumins. 
104. Chemical characteristics of proteids: 
Heated with strong nitric acid they turn yellow, and, on 
addition of ammonia, orange (xantho-proteic reaction); 
they are precipitated from solutions by acetic acid and 
potassium ferro-cyanide, by picric acid, by tannin, and 
by mercuric chloride; acted on by gastric and pancreatic 
juices, they become soluble and more diffusible. 
105. The native albumins: 
These are serum-albumin and egg-albumin; soluble in 
pure water; viscid, glairy, neutral; coagulated by a tem- 
perature of about 163 ° F. and also by strong mineral 
acids, but not by sodium chloride, vegetable acids, or 
dilute mineral acids; coagulated by heat are insoluble in 
mineral acids but soluble in alkalies. 
106. The globulins: 
These are (chiefly) globulin, paraglobulin, fibrinogen, 
hemoglobin. Insoluble in pure water, soluble in dilute 
neutral saline solutions. Globulin (called also crystallin), 
is a constituent of the vitreous and aqueous humors. 
Paraglobulin (called also serum globulin], fibrino-plastie 
substance, is a constituent of blood serum and plasma, 
and of the colorless blood corpuscles of lymph and chyle. 
Fibrinogen is a constituent of blood serum, serous fluids, 
and many pathological transudations. Hemoglobin 
occurs in globules of arterial blood ; acted on by acids 
or alkalies yields hematin; acted on by glacial acetic 
acid and mercuric chloride yields hemin (hydro-chlorate 
of hematin). 
85 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
107. Fibrin: 
Insoluble in water and in dilute saline solutions. In 
1 per cent solutions of HC1 does not dissolve but swells, 
becoming soluble on addition of pepsin. Decomposes 
hydrogen peroxide with effervescence; gives blue reac- 
tion with tincture guaiac and etherial solution of hydro- 
gen peroxide. Coagulates spontaneously; coagulation 
accelerated by ether, but stopped by sodium sulphate. 
108. The modified albumins: 
These are acid-albumin and alkali-albumin. Acid- 
albumin, called also syntonin and parapeptone, is the 
first product of the transformation of proteids by the 
gastric juice. Obtained by heating solution of albumin 
with one per cent strong HC1. Alkali-albumin, called 
also casein, is obtained artificially by heating solution of 
albumin with dilute alkali. The modified albumins are 
insoluble in water and in dilute saline solutions, but 
soluble in dilute acids and alkalies. 
109. Peptones: 
Peptone, called also albuminose, is soluble, not coagu- 
lated by heat, diffusible, passes easily through animal 
membranes, gives rosy red color with cold Fehling’s test 
liquid, precipitated by picric acid but redissolved when 
warmed. 
110. The albuminoids or allied albumins: 
These are constituents of epithelial and connective 
tissue. Mucin, insoluble in cold water, soluble in alka- 
lies, not precipitated by heat, nor by mercuric chloride, 
nor by potassium ferro-cyanide and acetic acid. Pre- 
cipitated by acetic acid, precipitate not dissolved by 
sodium sulphate. Gelatin, insoluble in cold water, sol- 
uble in hot, gelatinizing on cooling ; prolonged boiling, 
or boiling with acids prevents the gelatinizing on cool- 
ing. Chondrin is soluble in hot water, and gelatinizes ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
87 
on cooling. Elasticin is highly insoluble and does not 
gelatinize. 
111. Nitrogenized products of tissue metamor- 
phosis : 
Uric acid, sarcin, xanthin, guanin, cystin, biliary 
coloring matters, urinary coloring matters, etc. 
112. Uric acid: 
C5 H4 Nt Or Found in calculi, urine, blood, exuda- 
tions, in combination (urates) in articulations of patients 
with articular rheumatism. 
Constitutes urine of serpents and birds. In urine is 
colored, but when pure is white. Recognized by murexid 
test : add a few drops of nitric acid, heat gently just to- 
dryness, let cool, add ammonia [one drop]. Beautiful 
purple color develops. 
113. Biliary coloring matters: 
Bilirubin, biliverdin, bilifuscin, biliprasin; found, some- 
what altered, in feces. In icterus found in blood, urine, 
milk, sweat, saliva. The green color of bile is due to 
biliverdin, brown color to biliprasin. Recognized by 
Ctmelin’s test: slowly mix nitric acid containing a little 
nitrous acid (formed by adding one drop of sulphuric 
acid to the nitric acid beforehand) with the biliary mat- 
ters, when a play of colors will be observed, of which 
green alone is characteristic of bile pigment. Biliverdin 
is turned yellow in an alkaline solution by sulphurous 
oxide. Bilirubin is turned green by influence of oxidiz- 
ing agents. 
114. Urinary coloring matters: 
Urobilin, deemed hydrobilirubin, formed by action of 
nascent hydrogen on bilirubin; supposed to give high 
color to the urine of fevers. 
Uroerythrin gives rose-red color to uric acid and urates. 
(See Urinalysis.) ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 
Chapter I. 
Blood: Nutritive and purifying fluid of the body, ver- 
milion-red (arterial) or reddish-brown (venous), saline 
taste, specific gravity 1045 to 1075, alkaline reaction; 
-consists of a clear liquid holding in suspension three 
kinds of corpuscles red, white and transparent and in 
solution many substances organic and inorganic. 
A verage Composition: 
In 100 parts: Water, 79.5: solids, ‘20.5. Solids: 
»8erum albumin, 7.2; fibrin, 0.21; haemoglobin, 11.5; 
fatty matters, 0.18; extractives, 0.82; ash, 0.81. 
Serum.—Average Composition : 
In 100 parts: Water, 90.5; solids, 9.6. Solids: pro- 
teids, 8 to 9; fat extractives and salts, 2 to 1. 
Corpuscles.—Average Composition: 
In 100 parts, wet corpuscles: Water, 56.5; solids, 48.5' 
haemoglobin, 41.1; other proteids, 8.9; fats, chiefly chol- 
esterin and lecithin, .37. 
Reaction: Alkaline from presence of neutral sodium 
phosphate HNa.2P04, and acid sodium carbonate HNa, 
CO*. The alkalinity has been found to diminish in gout, 
Bright’s disease and cholera, though no precise observa- 
tions have been made on it. 
Fibrin: Blood drawn from body separates into clot 
and serum-, the clot is fibrin, holding in its meshes the 
blood corpuscles. Paraglobulin (fibrino-plastic sub- 
stance) and fibrinogen seem to be the antecedents of 
fibrin in the bloood, the fibrinogen being converted out- 
side the body into fibrin by the action of a third body, 
fibrin ferment. [Chylous urine and sometimes hydrocele 
* The disadvantages of any system of nomenclature which makes alkalinity 
«>f blood due to presence of neutral and acid salts, are well seen here. 
88 ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 
89 
fluid, on addition of fibrin ferment, may be coagulated 
like blood. 
Coloring Matter: Contained in red corpuscles, called 
hcemoglobin, contains about 0.4 per cent of iron con- 
stantly, is combined with an alkali to keep it in solution. 
The amount of haemoglobin decreases in cirrhosis of 
liver with epistaxis, chlorosis, leucocythaemia, Bright’s 
disease (granular kidney), large fatty kidney; it increases 
in diabetes mellitus and in phosphorus poisoning. 
For clinical purposes estimate amount by noting number 
of blood corpuscles and depth of color. Haemoglobin 
has purple color in venous blood, but can combine readily 
with oxygen to form a bright-red body, oxyhaemoglobin. 
Colorless Corpuscles: Two kinds, white and inter- 
mediate (haematoblasts). Intermediate smaller than 
white and nucleus more obscured by granules. Acetic 
acid renders nuclei of colorless corpuscles more distinct; 
iodine in potassium iodide stains body of corpuscles 
mahogany-brown, indicating glycogen. Proportion of 
white corpuscles to red, 1 to 340-350. Proportion in- 
creased in leucocythaemia, often to 1 to 8 or 1 to 10. 
When mairow of bones is affected in leucaemia or per- 
nicious anaemia, there are often found nucleated colored 
corpuscles, similar to those in blood of embryo. 
Blood Serum: Clear, straw yellow, specific gravity 
1025-1028, alkaline and more so than equal bulk of 
blood. Contains fatty matter, extractives, salt, paraglo- 
bulin, serum-albumin. Paraglobulin passes more easily 
through animal membranes than serum albumin; para- 
globulin with fibrinogen in presence of fibrin ferment 
forms fibrin, but fibrinogen is only in the blood plasma, 
i.e., in the colorless liquid in the body in which the 
globules float. 
Fatty Matters: Normal blood yields from .18 to .2 
per cent of saponifiable fats, lecithin, and cholesterin. ANIMAL CHEMISTRY 
The amount of fat is increased after a full meal and 
diminished during fasting. In cases of diabetes that 
have run an acute course, the blood sometimes assumes 
a lactescent appearance (lipaemia), due to presence of 
excess of fatty matter. 
Extractives: These are chiefly urea, glucose, kreatin, 
hypoxanthine, and uric acid. 
Salts: The salts of sodium preponderate over those 
of potassium, especially in the serum; in the corpuscles 
we find more potassium than sodium. Chlorides are 
more abundant in serum, phosphates in corpuscles. The 
phosphoric acid is combined chiefly with potassium in 
the corpuscles and with calcium and sodium in the 
serum. 
Toxic Conditions of the Blood: Asphyxia is due to 
accumulation of carbonic acid in the blood, proving 
rapidly fatal whenever the air-passages are completely 
blocked and the process of aeration of the blood by means 
of the lungs is checked. In less severe forms of obstruc- 
tion dyspnoea and cyanosis are noticed, the latter due to 
presence of imperfectly aerated blood in the capillaries. 
Pallor and a leaden hue are noticed in diseases where 
the number and color-value of red corpuscles are dimin- 
ished, as in scurvy. 
Uraemia supervenes in kidney diseases when the ex- 
cretion of solids in the urine is considerably diminished. 
According to Ralfe this condition is due in some meas- 
ure to the withdrawal of the nutritive matter of the 
blood or, at least, to the altered percentage relationship 
between it and the effete (extractive) materials. [Urea 
may be injected into the veins of animals without induc- 
ing uraemia; no ammoniacal odor is perceptible in the 
breath of persons suffering from uraemia; and, lastly, 
uraemic convulsions may occur, as in puerperal convul- ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 
91 
sions, when there is no evidence of any marked diminu- 
tion in the excretion of urea.] Venesection, apparently 
by altering the percentage composition of the blood, 
often proves of immense service in ureemia. (Ralfe). 
Jaundice takes place when in diseases of the liver any 
obstruction is offered to the onward passage of the bile; 
re-absorption takes place and the bile passing into the 
blood is deposited in the tissues. 
Cholestercemia is the name given to a condition of the 
blood in certain forms of liver disease, particularly cir- 
rhosis, in which there is great destruction of liver cells, 
and when the termination is by coma. Cholesterin, 
however, like urea, has no toxic influence, and Ralfe 
ventures to think the coma of hepatic disease is due to a 
general increase of the excretory matters in the blood. 
Acetona’mia is the name given to a condition of the 
blood found in patients dying of diabetic coma. Free 
acetone can not be obtained from freshly-drawn diabetic 
blood, but there is little doubt that a body readily yield- 
ing it can be separated from the blood of such patients. 
Deichmuller and Tollens deem it some compound of 
aceto-acetic acid. Whenever this substance—which 
gives a deep-red reaction in the urine with ferric chloride 
—is found in the urine, there is a peculiar odor like that 
of acetone noticed in the breath and in the urine. This 
odor is usually particularly noticed preceding acute dia- 
betic coma. Ralfe’s clinical test for this acetone-yield- 
ing body in the urine is as follows: To a drachm of liquor 
potass* add twenty grains of potassium iodide, and boil; 
holding the tube inclined cause a drachm of the sus- 
pected urine to trickle slowly down the side of the tube: 
a zone of phosphates will be noticed at the juncture of 
t he urine and the potassa solution, and if an acetone- 
yielding body be present this zone will become yellowr 92 
ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 
and studded with yellow points of iodoform, which in 
time will sink through the ring of phosphates and be 
deposited at the bottom of the test-tube. 
Examination of blood stains (Ralfe). The surface 
or substance of the material must be scraped or cut into 
small fragments and digested in as little distilled water 
as possible. A reddish fluid may be obtained, which 
(1) examine under microscope for blood corpuscles; (2) 
placed in deep, narrow cell and examined by spectro- 
scopic eye-piece with a low power of microscope, for 
bands of haemoglobin; (3) add a few drops of glacial 
acetic acid and a small quantity of sodium chloride 
evaporate to dryness at 104 ° to 122 c F. and examine 
residue for hsemin crystals; (4) place a drachm of tinc- 
guaiacum in a test-tube and add a drop of the 
suspected blood solution, then allow an equal amount of 
etherial solution of hydrogen peroxide solution to trickle 
down the side of tube held inclined; if blood, a blue 
ring will form at junction of the etherial solution and 
the guaiacum. 
Chyle: Milk-like fluid during digestion, collected 
from the stomach and intestines by the lymphatics aris- 
ing from these organs. One hundred parts of chyle con- 
tain, when taken from lacteals in full digestion: Water, 
91.8; solids, 8.2. The solids are: proteids, 3.5; fats, 3.3; 
salts, 0.8; extractives, 0.4; fibrin, 0.2. The proteids are 
serum albumin, paraglobulin, fibrinogen and peptones. 
The fatty matters consist of minute spherical globules, 
and are a mixture of saponifiable fats, cholesterin and 
lecithin. About 6.6 pounds of true chyle are formed and 
poured into the blood during twenty-four hours. Chyle 
is spontaneously coagulable. 
Lympli may be regarded as the serum of the blood, 
which has been transuded into the tissues and re- 
absorbed and carried back into the circulation by the ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 
93 
lymphatics. It is a clear, straw-colored fluid, containing 
less fibrin and fat than chyle. 
Lymph is alkaline, and consists of a fluid, and white 
corpuscles. 
Human milk: in 100parts; water,86.86; solids, 13.2. 
Solids: proteids (chiefly casein*), 2.93; butter, 3.78; 
sugar (lactose), 5.83; extractives, 0.25; salts, 0.35. 
Practically, solution of lactose and salts in water, holding 
in suspension fatty particles, and casein in partial so- 
lution. Specific gravity, 1032; reaction, alkaline; quan- 
tity in twenty-four hours, 2 to 3 pints. Colostrum 
secreted at about the time of confinement more alkaline 
and of higher specific gravity, richer in casein and fatty 
matters. 
Composition of milk varies with (i) age of child ; most 
sugar and least casein when child is youngest; (ii) food 
of parent ; butter increased by vegetable and fatty food; 
casein and sugar by mixed or meat diet ; fasting in- 
creases fat and casein, but diminishes sugar and salts ; 
(iii) complexion of parent : milk richer in brunettes and 
negresses ; (iv) disease: pyrexia, secretion diminished 
or suppressed, and quantity of solids, especially of but- 
ter and sugar, diminished ; mental emotion : reaction 
acid ; (v) food and drugs : may unfit milk for use. If 
decomposed, may contain sulphuretted hydrogen. If of 
blue color, examine for bacteria. 
Analysis: Take specific gravity with urinometer, re- 
action with litmus paper (double-acting purple paper 
preferred, turning blue with alkaline fluid, red with acid); 
observe color, odor, taste, etc., and see Appendix for com- 
plete process. 
Cow’s milk: Rarely encountered in cities. In 100 
parts: water, 83 to 87; butter, 3 to 4.5; casein, 3 to 5; 
albumin, 0.3 to 0.6; sugar, 4 to 5.5; salts, 0.7 to 0.8. 
*Meigs, of Philadelphia, in his analyses, shows less casein and more sugar. ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 
White, opaque, inodorous when cold; slightly sweetish 
in taste; salts chiefly phosphates; notably calcium phos- 
phate. Cream: name given to upper layer of milk on 
standing; composed chiefly of opaque fat globules seen 
by aid of microscope. Butter results from the agitation 
of these globules by churning, their contents running to- 
gether. Skim-milk is the lower layer of milk on stand- 
ing, the cream having been removed; contains lactose and 
salts in aqueous solution, together with casein and a lit- 
tle fat. Buttermilk is the residue after churning, and 
contains less fat than skim-milk. Cheese consists of casein 
precipitated from the milk by rennet and pressed into 
moulds; before the casein is removed the mixture of 
coagulated casein and serum is called curds and whey. 
Milk may be coagulated either by acids or special fer- 
ments; the lactose is converted into lactic acid, the reac- 
tion becomes acid, and the casein is precipitated. When 
milk is exposed to the air it sours through the agency of 
ferments, undergoing lactic fermentation, as has just 
been described; this fermentation is aided by heat, dimi- 
nution of oxygen in the air, etc., and is noticed before 
storms and when the air is charged with electricity. 
Milk sours more readily in metallic vessels. Souring 
may be prevented by the addition of a very small amount 
of bicarbonate of sodium; on the other hand, 1 part of 
rennet will coagulate 30,000 parts of milk. The compo- 
sition of milk varies greatly. The average specific gravity 
is 1031, the reaction alkaline, the daily amount 4 to 5 gal- 
lons, the percentage of cream 12.* Milk from unhealthy 
cows usually has some peculiarity of taste or smell, or a 
viscous, unhealthy appearance. Ammonia makes poor 
milk viscid, and the ash of milk from unhealthy animals 
usually has increased proportion of calcium phosphate. 
Adulterations with different substances not so common as 
♦Seldom do we find any such percentage in cities. ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 
believed, but the double fraud generally and successf ully 
practiced is skimming and watering combined, and.perhaps 
addition of some substance to restore the natural color if 
possible. Skimming removes the fatty matters, which 
are lighter than the other constituents, hence increases 
the specific gravity; on the other hand, subsequent addi- 
tion of water reduces, the specific gravity to normal. 
Taking the specific gravity of milk, then, with the urino- 
mer or lactometer is useless. Complete analysis is nec- 
essary to reveal the character of the fluid (see Appendix). 
Analysis of butter is also somewhat complicated. 
Saliva: Secretion of several glands, obtained pure 
with difficulty, turbid, opalescent, viscid, feebly alkaline, 
low specific gravity (1005). 
One thousand parts of mixed saliva yield: water 
004.94, solids 5.06. The solids are ptyalin [or diastatic 
ferment] 1.2, mucin 1.3, fatty matters 1.1, salts 1.6. 
Ptyalin is somewhat analogous to an albuminoid; its 
composition has not been accurately determined. It 
converts starch into maltose and glucose. 
The salts of the saliva are chiefly calcium carbonate 
and phosphate, and as long as the secretions of the 
mouth alkaline, there is a tendency to deposit 
lime compounds on the teeth [tartar]. This protects 
the body of the teeth, but has an injurious effect on the 
gums; when, in diseased conditions, the secretions of 
the mouth become acid, tartar is no longer deposited, 
and the decay of the teeth is usually hastened. (Leff- 
man.) 
Saliva also contains potassium sulphocyanate, KCNS, 
which, with ferric chloride, gives a red color similar 
to the acid of opium with this reagent. Mercuric chlo- 
ride causes the red produced by the sulphocyanide with 
ferric chloride to disappear, but does not affect the color 
produced by meconic acid and ferric chloride. 96 
ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 
Function of the saliva twofold: diastatic and excitant 
of gastric secretion. 
Reaction of saliva, alkaline; acid in diabetes, acute 
rheumatism, mercurial salivation; decomposition of or- 
ganic substances in the mouth may change the reaction 
to acid. 
Quantity of saliva in twenty-four hours, probably 
about 800 to 990 grammes; decreased in pyrexia and by 
certain drugs, notably belladonna; increased by dry food, 
in conditions of debility, and increased by certain drugs, 
notably mercury, pilocarpine, eserine. 
Gastric juice : In 1,000 parts of gastric juice (con- 
taining necessarily a certain amount of saliva) we find : 
Water, 994.6; solids, 5.4. The solids are: pepsin, 3.02; 
free hydrochloric acid, 0.22; alkaline chlorides, 2.0; 
phosphates, 0.15. Reaction of gastric juice, acid, and 
incontestably proved to be due to presence of hydro- 
chloric acid. [In morbid conditions, lactic, acetic, and 
butyric acids are found.] Gastric juice is a thin, glairy 
fluid, of a yellowish tint and variable composition. Spe- 
cific gravity usually 1010. Does not coagulate on boil- 
ing, and is less liable to putrefaction than other secre- 
tions. Quantity, 16 to 31 pounds in twenty-four hours. 
The principal ingredient is water, but the characteristic 
and important ingredients are hydrochloric acid and 
pepsin. Pepsin is a nitrogenous ferment resembling 
albumin, but not identical with it; it is a grayish-white 
powder, insoluble in water, but very soluble in dilute 
acids. Pepsin itself has no action on albuminous sub- 
stances, but in conjunction with dilute acid converts 
them into peptones. Gastric juice dissolves albuminous 
envelopes of fat cells, and the temperature of the stom- 
ach renders solid fats fluid; it has no action on starchy 
food; it dissolves gelatiniferous tissues; it coagulate's ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 
97 
casein (by some ferment, not by the hydrochloric acid), 
then converts it into peptone. 
Digestion is favored by temperatures from 95° to 
104 ° F.; by minute subdivision of the matters by in- 
creasing surface to be acted on. 
Digestion is interfered with by neutralization or pres- 
ence of too much acid, by concentration of the products 
of digestion, by alcohol, strong alkaline mixtures, and 
salts of heavy metals. 
Peptones are obtained by action of gastric juice on 
proteid substances; they were formerly called albuminose. 
They are white, amorphous, acid in reaction, soluble in 
water. 
Yomitetl matters: For clinical purposes, discover 
first, the nature of the acid in the vomit; second, whether 
any poison be present in it. 
To determine whether hydrochloric acid be in excess, 
or whether organic acids (lactic, butyric, acetic), pour 
the vomit into a tall cylindrical glass jar and allow to 
settle. Draw off with pipette, as much of the supernat- 
ant fluid as can be obtained, shake with an equal weight 
of ether in a cylindrical tube, set aside till ether 
has separated and remove etherial solution with pip- 
ette. The acidity of the etherial solution represents 
the acidity due to organic acids, whilst the acidity 
of the vomit left behind after removing the ether 
represents the acidity due to hydrochloric acid. Take the 
acidity of the vomit, therefore, before adding ether and 
after the ether is withdrawn, and if organic acids are in 
excess, the reduction in the acidity will be marked; if 
hydrochloric acid is in excess, the reduction in acidity 
will not be marked. [See Appendix for process.] 
To determine whether the vomit contains a poison or 
not, proceed, in general,* as follows: Elementary anal- 
* See Appendix for complete analysis. 98 
ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 
jsis: Place a small quantity of the vomit in a test-tube 
and warm gently; if prussic acid is present its peculiar 
odor — bitter almonds — will be evolved. To test for 
phosphorus: heat strongly another portion of the vomit 
in a narrow test-tube, arid carry into a darkened room to 
see if fumes of phosphorus are given off. Take reac- 
tion with litmus, and if the vomit turns the paper very 
red at once, some powerful acid (probably oxalic, sul- 
phuric, hydrochloric, carbolic) is present; if the red 
paper is soon turned a marked blue, the poison is prob- 
ably a caustic alkali, or alkaline salt. 
If nothing be found by any of the above processes, 
take a fresh amount of vomit, acidulate with pure hy- 
drochloric acid, and dip into it a strip of perfectly clean 
oopper, which has been previously dipped in alcohol. 
Apply heat to the tube containing the acidulated vomit 
and copper foil, for about twenty minutes. If the cop- 
per is stained black, arsenic, antimony or mercury is the 
poison. 
To test for poisonous alkaloids take very little of a 
fresh amount of vomit; make strongly alkaline with so- 
dium carbonate; shake with four times its volume of 
ether, and let settle. Remove the etherial solution which 
comes to the top by a pipette, and allowr it to evaporate 
spontaneously on a watch glass and test for morphine and 
strychnine (see Alkaloids). Tasting the etherial solution 
before evaporation will give idea as to its bitterness, and 
injection of it under the skin of a frog may show an alka- 
loid to be present. 
Bile: Obtained fresh is a thin, transparent fluid of 
golden-yellow color like that of yolk of an egg, of very 
bitter taste; alkaline reaction; average specific gravity, 
1018. Affer death, color brownish-yellow. Composi- 
tion varies; solid constituents range from 9 to 17 per cent; 
greatest in amount after a meal. Analysis of Frerichs ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 
99 
shows in 100 parts: water 85.92, inorganic salts-.78, 
organic matter 13.80. Mixed with oil and fat and shaken 
with them bile forms an emulsion breaking them up, 
making them miscible with water and rendering their 
passage through animal membranes more easy. Bile 
precipitates solutions of gastric peptones. Quantity of 
bile discharged daily, forty ounces. Forms soaps with 
fatty acids; acts as a purgative and antiseptic. Defec- 
tive secretion of bile one of chief causes of flatulent dys- 
pepsia (Balfe). Bile contains mucus, pigment, fat, soaps, 
cholesterin and lecithin, as well as inorganic salts and 
bile-acid salts. Bile coloring matter contains bilirubin, 
biliverdin, bilifuscin. Bile acids (in combination) are 
taurocholic and glycocholic, of which in man the former 
is more abundant. The bile fats are cholesterin, saponi- 
fiable fats and lecithin. Balfe holds that cholesterin is 
not excreted by the liver, but that some of the cholesterin 
formed in the organ is secreted with the bile. The chief 
base of the salts is soda in combination with the bile 
acids; sodium chloride is also present and in abundance, 
as well as sodium phosphate; the other salts are phos- 
phates of calcium and magnesium, and chloride of potas- 
sium. Traces of iron, copper and silica are said to be 
found in the bile. 
The functions of the liver are: formation of bile, for- 
mation of glycogen, metabolism of certain albuminous 
constituents of the body and probably conversion of car- 
bohydrates into fats and peptones into albumins. Dia- 
betes mellitus probably depends on some definite lesion 
of the nerve centres; glycosuria from vaso-motor paraly- 
sis, consequent on the circulation through the portal 
vessels of toxic agents, or as an expression of general 
nervous exhaustion; lithcemia, more properly uriccemia, is 
due to a disturbance of the nitrogenous equilibrium 
brought about by an increase of metabolic processes 100 
ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 
throughout the body, owing to an intramolecular activity 
in the cells. (Ralfe). 
Pancreatic juice: Solids, 3 to 10 per cent in pan- 
creatic juice of dogs ; organic solids, two-thirds of this 
amount; inorganic, one-third. Organic solids: ferments, 
serum-albumin, an albumin precipitable by magnesium 
sulphate, fatty matter, leucin and tyrosin (though latter 
two not always present). Of inorganic constituents, so- 
dium carbonate is in relative excess. The ferments act 
on starch, fat and proteids; the action on starch is more 
vigorous than that of the saliva ; fats are split up into 
glycerin and fatty acids ; proteids are converted into 
peptones, the ferment acting in a dilute alkaline solution, 
just as the gastric ferment acts in a dilute acid solution. 
Pancreatic juice is a clear, somewhat viscid fluid, odorless 
and of marked alkaline reaction, due chiefly to presence 
of sodium carbonate, sp. gr. 1008, quantity, 5 ounces in 
twenty-four hours. Pancreatic digestion differs from 
gastric: Proteids do not swell up, become translucent and 
fibrillate as in gastric, but remain opaque and apparently 
undergo conversion from the edges by process of erosion 
(Ralfe); the bye-product resembles alkali-albumin, not 
acid-albumin ; lastly, the continued action of the pan- 
creatic ferment leads to the breaking up of hemipeptone 
and formation of leucin and tyrosin. 
Intestinal fluid: Yellowish, opalescent, alkaline; 
specific gravity 1012, 2.5 per cent of solids. Dissolves 
fibrin and said to convert cane sugar into grape sugar 
and invert sugar, and to set up lactic acid fermentation. 
About 10 ounces secreted in twenty-four hours. 
Action of digestive fluids: in the stomach most 
of the diffusible sugars and some peptones pass directly 
into gastric veins; parapeptone, undigested albumin, 
starchy principles as yet unconverted, and oleaginous 
matters, pass into duodenum as acid chyme. On reach- ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 
101 
ing the biliary orifice bile is poured in, which precipitates 
the parapeptone, and with the pancreatic juice first neu- 
tralizes the acid, and then renders the contents of the 
intestine alkaline, the emulsionizing and saponification 
of fatty matters proceeding in the meantime. The chyme 
then passes into the jejunum and upper part of the ileum 
as chyle; here the final digestion of the food is effected, 
the pancreatic juice converting the undigested albumin 
and some of the gastric peptone into anti-peptone (true 
peptone, and not further changed) and hemi-peptone 
(changed further into leucin, tyrosin, etc.). Starch is 
converted into glucose, and probably also part of any 
cane siTgar present, while a portion begins to undergo 
lactic acid fermentation. The fats in the meanwhile are 
thoroughly emulsified and saponified. The peptones, 
glucose, and a dextrine-like body pass chiefly in the di- 
rection of the portal vessels, the emulsioned fat being 
taken up by the lacteals. As the fluid contents of the 
intestine pass on they gradually lose their nutritious con- 
stituents, till at the lower part of the ileum and large 
intestine they become of greater consistency, and contain 
little besides the insoluble residue of the food and the 
putrefactive products of pancreatic digestion. (Ralfe.) 
Faeces: One hundred parts contain approximately 
water, 77.3; solids, 22.7. The solids are mucin, 2.3 ; 
proteids, 5.4; extractives, 1.8; fats, 1.5; salts, 1.8; resin- 
ous biliary and coloring matters, 5.2; insoluble residue of 
food, 4.7. Rich brown, moist and slightly slimy on 
surface; odor variable—may be very strong and offensive 
even in the healthy. A small amount of coagulable al- 
bumin is always present in normal faeces, increased in 
dysentery, typhus and cholera. Extractives, among oth- 
ers, are stercorin and excretin. Fats are saponifiable fats 
and cholesterin. Inorganic constituents: magnesium 
phosphate, triple phosphate and calcium phosphate. 102 
ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 
Magnesium salts greater in amount than calcium, and 
potassium than sodium. Odor due chiefly to indol and 
skatol. 
Analysis of feces will not be considered here ; in- 
spection of stools can conveniently be made by placing 
them in large, deep, conical vessels and covering the mouth 
of the vessel with a thick glass plate. 
Oases of stomach and intestines : In stomach : 
Oxygen, nitrogen, carbonic acid ; oxygen and nitrogen 
derived from air swallowed with the food, and carbonic 
acid by diffusion from the blood. In the small intestine: 
Chiefly carbonic acid, nitrogen and hydrogen ; on a veg- 
etable diet, chiefly carbonic acid and hydrogen. In the 
large intestine : Hydrogen, marsli-gas, sulphuretted 
hydrogen. Hydrogen and carbonic acid normally occur 
in small intestine, due to fermentative changes in which 
butyric acid, carbonic acid and hydrogen are formed. In 
the large intestine, where the fermentative changes are so 
great that the contents become acid in spite of the alka- 
line character of its secretion, we And marsh-gas and 
sulphuretted hydrogen from decomposition of albuminous 
and other sulphur-yielding elements of the food. 
Flatus : In disease, fermentation may be such as to 
lead to production of enormous quantities of gas, or on 
the other hand, of the organic acids—lactic, acetic and 
butyric. If wind belched up is inodorous and there is no 
acidity, it is probably carbonic acid, and generally de- 
rived by diffusion from the blood under nervous influences. 
If flatulency is accompanied by a slight degree of acidity, 
sets in about an hour after eating, and the risings are 
merely acid and the eructations comparatively inodorous, 
acetic acid and carbonic acid fermentation of starchy and 
saccharine food is indicated. If the 1'isings are rancid, 
lactic acid fermentation is progressing and may continue 
independently of food by the decomposition of the mucus ANIMAL CHEMISTRY 
103 
in the stomach and intestinal canal. Enormous quan- 
tities of gas, chiefly carbonic acid, are often discharged 
through the mouth on a perfectly empty stomach by hys- 
terical and hypochondriacal patients, derived from blood 
by diffusion. (Italfe.) 
Urinary and renal calculi: The nuclei are formed 
in the kidney, where they are either retained and form a 
renal calculus, or pass down with the water into the blad- 
der and become vesical. In regard to the origin of 
stone, the nature of (a) the precipitated matters and the 
supply of (b) colloid material must be considered. High- 
ly acid urine precipitates uric acid and urates; urine 
alkaline from fixed alkalies precipitates calcium phos- 
phate; urine alkaline from volatile alkali (ammonium 
carbonate derived from decomposition of urea) precipi- 
tates triple phosphate; urine in which acid fermentation 
of mucus is going on in the urinary passages precipitates 
calcium oxalate (derived also from the system). Besides 
these substances other material is necessary. As to the 
nature of the colloid material in which the growth of 
stone is favored, various opinions exist; the mucus of 
the urinary passages undoubtedly furnishes the colloid 
medium by which the stone grows, but Balfe thinks that 
the colloid medium for the nucleus is furnished in some 
other way. He suggests that the deposition of calculous 
matter may primarily occur in the cells forming the wall 
of the renal tubules as the result of some vital impair- 
ment, so that the products normally eliminated by them 
were retained and deposited instead. 
(For consideration of Urinary Calculi see “ Guide in 
Urinalysis.”) 
Biliary calculi: Size varies from grains to masses 
large as pigeon’s eggs; the smaller, the more numerous. 
Externally usually smooth and slightly greasy. Color 
from dirty white to yellow-brown or even deep black, 104 
ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 
but usually sepia, olive-green, russet-brown. Usually 
soft, except when crust has much lime. They present 
usually a nucleus, a body and sometimes a crust. The 
nucleus is chiefly inspissated mucus, with bile pigment 
and cliolesterin. The body, on section either presents an 
amorphous appearance of brownish-yellow color, the 
material being arranged in concentric layers round the 
central nucleus, or else long stratified crystals of choles- 
terin radiate from the nucleus towards the circumference 
of the stone. . 
Analysis of gall stones is made as follows: Separate 
portions of the crust; the body and the nucleus must be 
examined. Weigh a fragment, incinerate with blow** 
pipe and weigh the ash; the loss in weight represents 
the amount of organic matter present; examine the ash 
for lime salts by dissolving in as small amount as possible 
of dilute acetic acid and precipitating with ammonium 
oxalate, which gives a copious white precipitate soluble 
in acetic acid if lime be present. Take another portion; 
thoroughly exhaust with ether, decant off the etherial 
solution, evaporate and test residue for cholesterin by 
adding a drop of nitric acid, heating and touching with 
ammonia, when a reddish-brown coloration will be given, 
Take the part not affected by ether, treat with chloro- 
form, evaporate, and a brownish powder of bile pigment 
will be obtained; test this by adding a few drops of 
nitric acid (to which a drop of sulphuric acid has been 
added) when a play of colors will be observed, of which 
green is characteristic of bile pigment. 
Some biliary calculi are almost wholly composed of 
pigment, in which case they are small like gravel and 
have a tarry, blackish lustre, appearing homogeneous 
when broken across. (Ralfe.) 
Pancreatic calculi are oval in shape, their surface 
often presents worm-eaten appearance of whitish color, ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 
105 
acquiring an enamel-like lustre when rubbed ; when 
broken across, their fracture presents a glistening white 
porcelain appearance. 
Intestinal concretions: found chiefly in caecum 
and large intestines, vary in size and composition, yellow- 
ish inclining to gray or brown, nucleus usually a foreign 
body, gall-stone, woody fibre, fruit-stone, etc. Some 
concretions consist of hair, woody fibres, husks of seeds. 
In people eating oatmeal, concretions composed of frag- 
ments of the envelopes of the oat studded or encrusted 
with triple phosphate crystals are sometimes found. 
Intestinal concretions should first be extracted with 
ether and tested for cholesterin, as in case of gall-stones. 
After this they may be tested like urinary calculi. If 
they are of yellow, waxy appearance, and varying in size, 
they may consist of 60 to 70 per cent fatty matter 
mixed with earthy phosphates and a substance of a 
fibrinous nature ; in this case first extract with ether to 
remove the fatty matter, then test the residue with hydro- 
gen peroxide, which will cause effervescence if a fibrinous 
substance be present. Oatmeal concretions (avenoliths) 
may be examined with the microscope for triple phos- 
phate crystals. « 
Salivary calculi are rare and easily recognized from 
their position, which is usually in Wharton’s duct, near 
the outlet. 
Prostatic concretions are of two kinds, small and 
large ; the small ones are chiefly carbonate of lime, and 
when powdered effervesce strongly with hydrochloric 
acid ; the larger ones contain more phosphate and less 
carbonate of lime. 
Gouty concretions are composed of sodium urate, 
at first semi-fluid, but soon becoming hardened and 
chalk-like. 
Products of degenerations: in fatty infiltration 106 
ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 
there is excess of fat in the blood ; in fatty degeneration 
the fat is not derived directly from the blood, but by 
retrograde changes taking place in the proteid constitu- 
ents of the tissues themselves. 
Lardaceous degeneration is said to be an infiltration by 
histologists, but a true degeneration by chemists ; the 
term lardacein is now applied to the substance giving 
the waxy appearance to the tissues (instead of amyloid, 
the term formerly used), as it is a definite nitrogenous 
body, and related to the proteid group. Hyaline degen- 
eration is probably the first step in a process, which, if 
acute, leads to fatty degeneration, but if chronic, to lar- 
daceous. Amyloid bodies are found chiefly in the pros- 
tate, ependyma of ventricles, the fornix, choroid plexus, 
retina and spinal cord of aged persons ; they are apt to 
become calcified, and when thus met with in nerve cen- 
tres constitute what is called “brain sand.” These 
bodies have nothing to do with lardacein. * 
Mucoid and colloid degeneration: in the former we 
find an increase of mucin in connective tissue elements ; 
in the latter the gelatinous constituents seem to be con- 
verted into collagen, which is the substance obtained from 
the white fibres of connective tissues. The fluids of 
mucoid degeneration are precipitated by acetic acid; 
those of colloid, not. In myxoedema we find a jelly-like 
swelling of the connective tissue consisting of an over- 
growth of the mucus-yielding cement by which the fibrils 
of the white element are held together. (Ralfe.) 
Calcareous degeneration: calcareous deposits consist 
chiefly of calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate, magne- 
sium phosphate, traces of soluble salts and, usually, fatty 
matter and cholesterin. Exhaust with ether to remove 
fatty matter, and examine the residue for lime by dis- 
solving in acetic acid and precipitating with ammonium 
oxalate. ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 
107 
Exudations: Pus is a pathological product, consisting 
essentially of a liquid portion, which is exuded liquor 
sanguinis, and white corpuscles, very much like those of 
the blood, but still more like those of mucus. The com- 
position of pus has been given as: water, 87 ; proteids, 
8.5; fatty matters, 3.0; extractives, 0.7; salts, 0.8. The 
corpuscles yield several albuminous substances, as also 
the liquor puris. Pus is usually alkaline in reaction ; 
with ammonia or caustic potash solutions, pus becomes 
tenacious or jelly-like, thus distinguishing it from mucus, 
which becomes less tenacious and more fluid with the 
same reagent. Hydrogen peroxide, when added to pus, 
causes effervescence, a point of some importance in den- 
tistry, as shown by Harlan, Frank Gardiner and others. 
The blue color noticed on dry bandages which have been 
in contact with pus, is due to pyo-cyanin, generated by 
a bacillus, and probably the same one that sometimes 
gives milk a blue color. 
Dropsical fluids, etc.: These are blood serum 
more or less diluted with water; specific gravity, 1.005 
to 1.022; constituents: proteids (sero-albumin, paraglo- 
bulin and fibrinogen); a small proportion of fatty matter, 
in old cases some cholesterin, extractives (urea, glucose, 
sometimes a little leucin), and blood salts. Hydrocele 
fluid frequently contains succinic acid and more choles- 
terin than other fluids. 
Cerebro-spinal fluid does not coagulate when heated, 
but becomes opalescent and gives a flocculent precipitate 
on addition of acetic acid. Liquor amnii and allantoic 
fluids are usually clear and colorless, and contain in early 
period of gestation considerable sugar, which gradually 
disappears. Allantoic fluid contains a characteristic in- 
gredient, allant oin. 
Synovia is denser than the fluid of serous sacs, and 
more viscid from presence of mucin. ANIMAL CHEMISTRY 
108 
Ovarian cyst fluid lias been treated at some length 
by the author, in the Medical Era* May be a clear al- 
buminous serous liquid, or a thick gelatinous substance; 
specific gravity, from 1.007 to 1.062; it almost always 
contains a sediment; reaction, alkaline; color, odor, trans- 
parency and consistency variable; A typical ovarian fluid 
is almost always viscid, its specific gravity higher than 
that of a broad ligament cyst, and as a rule it does not co- 
agulate spontaneously (Garrigues). Ovarian fluid consists 
of water, albuminoids, fats, salts and extractives, and of 
these constituents the albuminoids are of greatest clini- 
cal significance; among the latter we find paralbumin 
and metalbumin, two substances whose composition is 
doubtful. They are probably intermediate products of 
the transformation of proteid substances into mucoid or 
colloid matter. Paralbumin contains a body somewhat 
resembling glycogen. Both paralbumin and metalbumin 
have been found in renal cysts, as well as ovarian. It is 
difficult to distinguish, chemically, ovarian cyst fluid 
from that of cyst of another organ. (Garrigues thinks it 
can be done microscopically, up to a certain point, by 
finding columnar epithelial cells, seen in side view, 
which he contends are not found in any fluids except 
those from tumors of the ovary, Fallopian tube and 
broad ligament, and possibly cyst of the pancreas.) 
Chemical examination may fail to distinguish ascitic 
fluid from ovarian. If the solids be in excess of those 
of blood serum, we can say positively that the fluid is 
not ascitic (lialfe). Garrigues says ascitic fluid “can 
sometimes be recognized by mere inspection. The spe- 
cific gravity cannot be used for a diagnosis. As a rule, 
some spontaneous coagulation takes place, but sometimes 
not. On the other hand, ovarian fluid may coagulate sponta- 
*See Medical Era, vol. 1, page 116. ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 
109 
neously. Scherer’s test for paralbumin has no value for the 
differential diagnosis. It can always be made by the micro- 
scope, showing flat endothelium aud ameboid lymph cor- 
puscles.” Ascitic fluid “ arising from cancer of the peri- 
toneum differs, perhaps, from simple ascites by containing 
large round or pear-shaped endothelial cells, with large 
nucleus, either isolated or in groups. Ascitic fluid, mixed 
with ovarian fluid, is full of endothelial cells and flakes, 
which undergo fatty degeneration. Ameboid lymphoid 
bodies are found together with columnar epithelial cells. 
It did not coagulate spontaneously in my cases. Even 
when there is a long rent in a cyst, the fluid inside and 
outside the cyst may be different.” 
Ascitic fluid can then sometimes be differentiated 
from ovarian, in that it is usually not viscid. Another 
point of difference is that in ovarian fluids the histologi- 
cal elements are, as a rule, preserved for weeks or months; 
not so with ascitic fluid or broad ligament cyst fluid. 
Ascitic fluid, as a rule, coagulates spontaneously and 
slowly, forming a small coagulum, but this does not 
always happen; ovarian fluid, as a rule, does not coagulate 
spontaneously, and if it does the coagulation takes place 
slowly. Fluid of uterine fibro-cysts sometimes coagulates 
and then spontaneously, promptly, and completely. Both 
ovarian cysts and cysts of the broad ligament may have 
serous or colloid contents, but the latter is common in 
ovarian cysts, rare in extra-ovarian cysts, while watery 
fluid is common in extra-ovarian, rare in ovarian cysts. 
The fluid of cysts in the abdominal wall differs from that 
of ovarian by being limpid, serous, and lemon-colored. 
The fluid of spina bifida contains no serum-albumin, i. e., 
is not coagulated by heat, and no histological elements. 
Hydatid cyst fluid is limpid, opalescent on standing, 
reaction 1009 to 1013, no albumin unless inflammation of 110 
ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 
the cyst wall. Great characteristic is the amount of 
sodium chloride, which will distinguish it from any other 
fluid even when the “ booklets ” are absent. 
Fluids from hydro-nephrotic cysts is of low sp. gr. 
(1004), no albumin, reaction faintly acid, often neutral. 
Urea may be present in large amount or be absent. 
Encysted peritoneal collections never are viscid. EXAMINATION OF HEINE. * 
Chapter I. 
Physical characteristics: Collect total quantity in 
twenty-four hours (except in certain cases hereafter 
specified); notice whether color is pale, normal (amber) 
or high (dark); notice whether odor is normal (urinous), 
strong urinous or offensive (ammoniacal); notice whether 
reaction is acid, alkaline or neutral; if acid, turns blue 
litmus paper red; if alkaline, turns red paper blue; if 
neutral, no effect upon either; take specific gravity with 
urinometer, noticing whether it is normal (1015 to 1025), 
high. (1030 to 1060) or low (1012 to 1002); notice 
whether the urine deposits a sediment on standing. 
Abnormal constituents: Albumin, sugar, bile, pep- 
tone. 
I. Filter entirely clear, fill test-tube half-full of filtered 
urine, and cause cold nitric acid to trickle slowly down 
its side: zone of turbidity may indicate presence of some 
proteid (sero-albumin, peptone). 
II. If proteid is thus suspected, take a fresh amount of 
filtered urine, neutralize (with acetic acid if mine is alka- 
line, or with potassium hydrate solution if strongly acid) 
and boil. A coagulum shows that the proteid found in 
I. is sero-albumin, and not peptone or other substance. 
III. If no proteid is found in I., do not go through 
with II. 
IY. If sero-albumin has been found as in II., filter the 
urine from the coagulum and add the filtered urine to 
boiled sugar test solution, and boil. (Haines’s test liquid 
is pure sulphate of copper 30 grains, pure glycerin two 
fluidrachms, pure caustic potash in sticks If drachms, 
pure water six fluid ounces; dissolve the sulphate of 
* For clinical significance, see “ Practitioner’s Guide in Urinalysis. 112 
EXAMINATION OF URINE. 
copper and glycerin in a portion of the water, and the 
caustic potash in the remainder, mix the two solutions.) 
A reddish yellow turbidity indicates presence of sugar. 
If no sugar be present, dirty white flocks of phosphates 
may be seen. If no proteid has been found in I., no need 
of filtering before IY, but merely take fresh amount of 
urine. 
Y. Whether or not sugar has been found take fresh 
amount of mine and again perform the cold nitric acid 
test as in I., but previously adding to the acid a drop of 
sulphuric acid. A play of colors at the juncture of acid 
and urine (green prominent) indicates the presence of 
bile. 
YI. Whether or not serum albumin has been found 
take cold Fehling’s solution and cause fresh amount of 
urine to trickle down the side of the test tube into it. 
A rosy red color at juncture indicates the presence of 
peptones; a violet coloration may be noticed wThen 
serum albumin is present. 
Examination of sediment: Urates, phosphates, 
pus, mucus, blood, uric acid, calcium oxalate. Before 
examining sediment let the urine stand until the deposit, 
if any, has settled; decant the urine from it, and examine 
it as free from urine as possible. 
YII. Heat some of the sediment, gently, in a test-tube, 
and if it dissolves after warming, urates are present. 
(If no albumin be present in the urine, the warming may 
be carried to a point just short of boiling.) 
VIII. If the sediment does not dissolve on warming, 
take a fresh amount, add a few drops of acetic acid, 
agitate well, and if sediment dissolves, earthy phosphates 
are present in the sediment. 
IX. If the sediment shows no change with warmth or 
with acetic acid, take a fresh amount, get as free from 
urine as possible, drop into it a small fragment of caustic EXAMINATION OF URINE. 
113 
potash, and if after the latter dissolves, the sediment 
becomes gluey, shown in pouring it slowly from one test- 
tube to another, pus is present. 
X. If urates, phosphates, or pus be found or not, take 
a fresh amount of the sediment and test it for blood; 
take equal parts of ozonized spirit of turpentine and 
tincture of guaiac, mix, shake well, and let an equal 
amount of urine and sediment trickle down the test-tube 
into the mixture. A blue coloration, very slowly appear- 
ing at the juncture of the mixture and the urine, indi- 
cates the presence of blood. 
XI. Examine the sediment closely with the naked eye, 
holding the bottle above the head and looking up into it: 
if specks like brown pepper are seen, uric acid is prob- 
ably present; remove some of the specks with the pipette, 
and examine with the microscope; crystals having marked 
color are uric acid. 
XII. If the sediment answers, either not all or only in 
part, to the above tests, calcium oxalate may be present: 
This sediment is insoluble in acetic acid, but soluble in 
nitric. By all means confirm with the microscope (400 
diameters); colorless crystals resembling reverse of 
letter-envelope, or possibly dumb-bells, are calcium oxa- 
late. 
The urine often contains a heavy sediment, not com- 
posed of a noticeable amount of any of the above-men- 
tioned substances. This is especially the case in the 
urine of females, and in albuminous urine. The micro- 
scope will show fungi, epithelial cells, oil globules, 
mucus, and perhaps casts. Spermatozoa must be sought 
for with the microscope, or the urine tested with Tanret’s 
solution. 
Normal constituents: 
Urea, urates, urolnematin, chlorides, phosphates, 
sulphates, indican. 114 
EXAMINATION OF URINE. 
XIV. If the urine contains serum albumin, remove 
(neutralize, boil, filter); if not, merely see that the urine 
is filtered clear. On the clear urine perform the cold 
nitric acid test, as in I. This may show three things, 
viz., excess of urea, excess of urates, absence, presence or 
excess of urohsematin: great excess of urea is shown by 
crystals forming in a ring at line of juncture of acid and 
urine; the crystals may be so numerous as to fill com- 
pletely the greater part of the liquid, or they may settle, 
after some hours, to the bottom of the tube as a yellow- 
ish-white sediment (nitrate of urea). On the other hand, 
excess of urates is shown by the comparatively rapid de- 
velopment of a diffuse turbidity apt to be noticed, first, 
at the top of the liquid, and extending downwards. This 
turbidity disappears if the test-tube, held at the bottom, 
between the thumb and forefinger, be brought in contact 
with a gas flame. Presence of urolnematin in normal 
amount is indicated by a pink-colored zone at juncture 
of urine and acid;'excess, by a dark-colored zone; absence, 
by lack of coloration. 
XV. Take fresh amount of the filtered urine, add a 
few drops of nitric acid and some silver nitrate solution; 
a curdy white precipitate (silver chloride) indicates pres- 
ence of chlorides. Normal urine should show an abun- 
dance of this precipitate. 
XVI. Boil a fresh amount of the filtered urine, and add 
ammonium hydrate solution; a flocculent precipitate 
shows presence of earthy phosphates; filter, and to the 
filtered urine add ammonium carbonate solution and 
magnesium sulphate solution; a white precipitate shows 
presence of alkaline phosphates. (Excess of earthy 
phosphates in urine, free from sediment, may be detected 
by a flocculent precipitate after the urine is boiled, and 
before the ammonia is added. Albumin, of course, must 
be absent when this test is made.) EXAMINATION OF URINE. 
115 
XVII. To fresli amount of filtered urine add a few 
drops of hydrochloric acid, and some barium chloride 
solution. White precipitate shows presence of sulphates. 
XVIII. To fresh amount of filtered urine add hydro- 
chloric acid, letting it trickle down the side of the test- 
tube. Violet zone shows the presence of indican. 
2. Objections and Precautions: 
Physical characteristics-, in certain forms of Bright’s 
disease, where only a small amount of albumin is pres- 
ent, it is advisable not only to examine the mine of 
twenty-four hours but that voided after muscular exer- 
tion separately. 
In cases where sediments occur, the urine of different 
micturitions may be collected separately, and the length 
of time necessary for the sediment to form noticed. The 
more rapid the formation of the sediment, the greater 
the danger of calculus. 
In observing the color of the mine, filter into a clean 
beaker ; in noting the odor, distinguish carefully between 
intensified urinous odor, as in fevers, and the pungent 
odor of ammoniacal urine, as in cystitis. Absence of 
odor is noticed in some forms of Bright’s disease, and 
a sweetish smell in diabetes mellitus. In taking the 
reaction, allow the litmus paper to become saturated. In 
taking the specific gravity, shun cheap urinometers and 
beakers of small diameter, and see that the urinometer 
does not adhere to the sides of the beaker. 
Abnormal constituents-. — in performing cold nitric 
acid tests, if the acid is trickled into the urine, it ds con- 
venient to pour the acid from a test-tube of small diam- 
eter into one of larger diameter containing the urine ; or 
at any rate, the lip of the tube containing the acid should 
be inserted well into the tube containing the urine. 
Be prepared for the action of nitric acid in detect- 
ing other constituents than albumin. Do not mistake 116 
EXAMINATION OF URINE. 
generally diffused turbidity, slowly appearing (urates), for 
the almost instantaneous, well-defined and whitish zone 
characteristic of a proteid. Remember that, in most 
specimens of urine, the cold nitric acid causes a color-zone 
at the juncture of acid and urine, which must not be 
mistaken for a proteid. 
For routine purposes, the finding of a proteid zone with 
nitric acid is all that is necessary, and II. may be 
omitted. In all cases it is desirable to ascertain whether 
the albumin be due to the presence of pus or blood. The 
sediment also must invariably be examined with the micro- 
scope for tube-casts (see Guide in Urinalysis). If for any 
reason it should be important to distinguish serum-albu- 
min from peptone remember that heat is the great test for 
the former, but in very acid urine the albumin becomes 
converted into acid-albumin and in alkaline urine into al- 
kali-albumin; it is therefore necessary before applying the 
heat test to neutralize carefully if the urine be alkaline 
or very acid (the latter shown by turning blue litmus 
paper bright red). In neutralizing it is convenient to 
have the urine in a beaker rather than in a test-tube, and 
if the urine be alkaline, acetic acid may be added drop by 
drop until the reaction is neutral or slightly acid; if the 
urine be strongly acid, solution of potassium hydrate may 
be added cautiously until the reaction be slightly acid; 
if on boiling after addition of potassium hydrate, a 
fiocculent dirty-white precipitate be noticed, remember 
phosphates, and if a general yellow coloration turning a 
deep red, remember sugar. To identify serum-albumin, 
then, in strongly acid urine by the process involving 
neutralizing and boiling, is not always easy; if any doubt 
occurs, the following process may be used: On filtered 
urine perform the cold nitric acid test, and, holding the 
bottom of the test-tube between the thumb and fore- 
finger, subject the turbid zone of proteid to heat, over EXAMINATION OF URINE. 
117 
the gas flame; if the zone disappear under the action of 
heat, sero-albumin is not present. To decide whether the 
coagulation caused by the nitric acid was due to presence 
of peptone, fill a test-tube half full of sugar-test solution, 
and allow fresh amount of the filtered urine to trickle 
down into it, a rosy red coloration at the juncture indi- 
cating that peptones are present. 
In testing for sugar it is well to remove serum-albumin 
(if any) from the urine, by neutralizing if necessary, 
boiling and filtering. In boiling the sugar-test solution 
it is well to add beforehand a few clean fragments of a 
clay-pipe to prevent sudden boiling. Note carefully that 
urine containing excess of uric acid (usually a high color, 
high specific gravity, strong acid reaction) may give a re- 
action resembling that of sugar. In case of doubt, try 
the indigo-carmine test. (See Bedside Testing.) Some- 
times various colorations are formed, owing to the mixture 
of the blue color of the test liquid and the color of the 
urine; sugar, however, is indicated by a reddish-yellow 
turbidity. Remember that the test liquid makes the 
urine alkaline, and therefore, especially when hot, pre- 
cipitates the phosphates; the error of mistaking these 
phosphates for sugar is made so often as to become a 
standing joke among medical students. 
Examination of sediments: Remember that a sedi- 
ment of urates is not seen until after the urine cools; 
most urate sediments are reddish in color, but sometimes 
creamy-wdiite deposits of them are noticed. The urate 
sediment is often very heavy, and will clear completely 
with gentle heat. If the urine contains albumin, some 
care must be exercised in detecting urates in the sedi 
ment; the sediment must be warmed gently for a consid- 
erable time, the test-tube being not held in the flame, but 
passed to and fro through it. If the urine does not con- 
tain albumin,_ heat may be applied more directly, and 118 
EXAMINATION OF URINE. 
the test made more rapidly, but the sediment should 
never be boiled, lest any excess of phosphates in solution 
be thereby precipitated and leave the urine still turbid. 
Great confusion exists in the minds of the inexperienced 
in regard to phosphates. It must be remembered that 
salts of phosphoric acid are found in the urine normally 
in solution, viz., phosphate of sodium, phosphate of po- 
tassium, phosphate of calcium, phosphate of magnesium. 
Of these, phosphates of sodium and potassium never 
occur in the sediment. Nor are they precipitated by 
making the urine alkaline ; we therefore dismiss them 
from consideration, as they cut no figure either in test- 
ing for abnormal constituents or the contents of sedi- 
ments. On the other hand, the phosphates of calcium 
and magnesium are precipitated whenever the urine is 
made alkaline, and especially if in addition it be heated, 
as for instance in making a test for sero-albumin or for 
sugar. These phosphates may be in excess in the urine 
and yet not occur as a sediment if the reaction of the 
urine be sufficiently acid to keep them in solution. If, 
on the other hand, the reaction of the urine be feebly 
acid, neutral, or alkaline, an excess of these phosphates 
will be at once shown by formation of sediment. If the 
reaction of the urine be alkaline, a sediment of these 
phosphates will always be observed, whether they be 
normal in amount or in excess. A sediment of these 
phosphates, then, does not necessarily indicate that they 
are in excess, but merely that the reaction of the urine 
is not acid enough to hold them in solution. They are 
detected as a sediment by their ready solubility in acetic 
acid. Where the sediment is heavy, do not be sparing of 
acid. Excess of these phosphates in solution, where no 
sediment is present, is determined according to methods 
which will be shown hereafter under the head of normal 
constituents. Phosphatic sediments are light colored. EXAMINATION OF URINE. 
Detection of pus is not always easy. Where the sedi- 
ment is flocculent and does not stick to the glass, the 
caustic potash test works very well, and the stringy 
character of the mixture is easily shown. When, how- 
ever, the urine is alkaline, and sometimes when not, the 
pus sediment may be already stringy and tenacious of 
itself ; in such cases, remove some of the sediment, and 
treat it with hydrogen peroxide, when a noticeable effer- 
vescence will take place. Urine containing pus will 
almost always show a slight proteid zone with cold nitric 
acid. 
In testing for blood it is highly important that the 
urine be freshly voided. Instead of the turpentine and 
guaiac test, ethereal solution of hydrogen peroxide and 
guaiac is now used. 
Uric acid crystals often are found in urate sediments; 
gentle heat dissolves the latter, leaving the former as 
brown specks. 
Calcium oxalate sediments are insoluble in heat and 
in acetic acid, but soluble in nitric acid ; the latter acid 
cannot be used in testing when a proteid is present, 
and moreover changes the color of the urine so as some- 
times to confuse the beginner. The microscope is far 
superior to chemical tests in identifying these oxalate 
sediments. 
The beginner is frequently puzzled by meeting with 
specimens of urine which contain no sediment settling to 
the bottom of the glass, but exhibiting at the same time 
a generally diffused turbidity. Such urines to be filtered 
clear require three or four thicknesses of filter-paper. 
The substances causing the generally diffused turbidity 
do not answer to any of the ordinary chemical tests, and 
the result of microscopic examination is often more or 
less unsatisfactory. The urine of females often is of this 
nature, especially after a tedious labor. In the first 120 
EXAMINATION OF URINE. 
grade of cystitis we find also this generally diffused 
turbidity of the urine; here, however, if two specimens 
be placed in separate tubes and acetic acid be added to 
one but not to the other, the former will often become 
considerably more turbid, indicating presence of increased 
amount of “mucus.” 
Urine seemingly perfectly clear, but which on standing 
deposits a very slight, easily moved, finely flocculent 
sediment, only perceptible when held between the light 
and the eye, should be examined with the microscope for 
spermatozoa. 
Albuminous urine often contains heavy sediment con- 
sisting chiefly of fungi, etc., not affected by the various 
tests. 
Bedside testing may be made with (i) dry tests, or 
(ii) test papers. 
Dry tests for albumin: We find the chief dry tests to 
be trichloracetic acid, metaphosphoric acid. These sub- 
stances are used as follows : Trichloracetic acid is sold in 
form of crystals ; drop one of these crystals into a test 
tube half full of the suspected urine, and the test is per- 
formed—a cloudy zone forming as the crystal dissolves 
in the urine, if albumin be present. Metaphosphoric acid 
(glacial phos. acid) maybe used instead of trichloracetic; 
it is sold in the form of white or transparent sticks, and 
is used by simply breaking these into fragments and 
dropping one of them into a test tube containing the sus- 
pected urine. As the acid dissolves it precipitates the 
albumin in the form of a dense cloud, which can be dif- 
fused by shaking. A fragment the size of a pea is 
enough for a fluid drachm of urine. It should either be 
freshly made, or when made kept in a tightly-stopped 
bottle. 
Objections, etc., to the dry tests for albumin: It will 
be noticed that the substances just mentioned are both EXAMINATION OF URINE. 
121 
acids. The objection to trichloracetic and metaphosphoric 
acids is (i) if the urine be saturated with urates a tur- 
bidity will be caused; this, however, disappears on ap- 
plication of gentle heat or heat short of boiling ; albumin 
not; (ii) if the urine contains resins, a turbidity will be 
caused but this will be dissolved by alcohol; albumin 
not. A precipitate of peptones is cleared by heat. 
Dry tests for sugar: These are sold in the form of test 
pellets or tablets. Messrs. Wyeth sell compressed chem- 
ical tablets representing the solid constituents of Fehl- 
ing’s test solution ; in addition to the tablets, caustic 
soda is used as follows : 
First: Dissolve the caustic soda in sufficient water to 
measure fifteen minims. 
Second : Dilute two minims of the solution of soda 
with twelve minims of water, and, in this, dissolve one 
of each of the tablets (Nos. 1 and 2) with the aid of 
heat. 
Sixteen minims (1 c.c.) of this solution are decolor- 
ized with precipitation of red oxide of copper, by the 
addition of 1-12 gr. (0.005 gm.) of glucose, contained in 
urine, etc. 
The tablets must be kept in well-stopped bottles and 
in a dry place. 
To detect the presence of sugar: It is sufficient to 
add a few drops of the test solution to a small quantity of 
urine contained in a test tube, and boiling ; the mixture 
will then assume a turbid appearance, caused by libera- 
tion of red cuprous oxide, which will deposit on standing. 
To determine the exact quantity of sugar: Dilute 16 
minims of the test solution with one fluid drachm (4 c.c.) 
of distilled water, and in another vessel, dilute 16 min- 
ims (1 c.c.) of urine with enough distilled water to meas- 
ure 160 minims (10 c.c.). Boil the test solution and add 
the diluted urine, until the blue color is completely dis- 122 
EXAMINATION OF URINE. 
charged. The quantity of the latter employed is divided 
by 10, and the result represents pure urine, containing 
1-12 gr. (0.005) of sugar. 
Objections to the use of these pellets are the same as 
those to Fehling’s solution. 
Test-papers: The use of test papers was first sug- 
gested in England by Dr. George Oliver, of Harrogate. 
Certain new tests for albumin were presented to the phy- 
sician in the shape of slips of paper impregnated with 
the various reagents employed. 
Messrs. Parke, Davis & Co., now manufacture a pocket 
case containing these urinary test papers, test tubes, etc., 
which for cleverness, ingenuity and convenience, leaves 
little to be desired. The case contains eleven sets of test 
papers, arranged in slips, so as to be readily torn off for 
use. The different test papers are purple litmus (turn- 
ing blue with alkaline and red with acid urine), citric 
acid, picric acid, potassio-mercuric iodide, potassium fer- 
rocyanide, sodium tungstate. The last four are used for 
testing for albumin in connection always with citric acid. 
The papers are used as follows: “To test for albumin, 
a slip of the citric-acid paper is first placed in a small 
test tube containing about thirty minims of the urine to 
be tested, and the acid allowed to dissolve. If a cloudi- 
ness is produced by the acid, it is due to the presence 
either of uric acid or of mucin, or rarely of oleo-resins, 
as in cases where balsam copaiba has been taken medi- 
cinally. The urates disappear on warming the urine. 
Mucin remains, however, and is distinguished from any 
other constituent of the urine by this behavior. The 
oleo-resinous precipitate is cleared up by boiling, but 
quickly returns while the urine is still warm. 
After observing the effect of the acid alone, add the 
albumin precipitant, one of the four papers above named. EXAMINATION OF URINE. 
123 
As the reagent dissolves, albumin, if present, is precip- 
itated in the form of a distinct cloud, which is rather 
increased than diminished on application of heat. The 
most sensitive of these reagents is the potassio-mercuric 
iodide, but the sodium tungstate and the picric acid are 
only slightly inferior. Potassium ferrocyanide is decid 
edly less sensitive ; the range of its indications, however, 
is practically the same as that of nitric acid. 
The mercuric reagent and picric acid precipitate alka- 
loids, such as quinine, wdiich may be present in the urine. 
The precipitates, however, are readily distinguished from 
those of albumin by the fact that heat dissipates them; 
alcohol also dissolves them. All these reagents except 
potassium ferrocyanide precipitate peptones, but heat 
clears up the solution. As tests for sugar the series con- 
tains: 1st, Indigo carmine—Mulder’s reagent. This is 
the most conclusive and the best single test we possess 
for glucose. To make the test, an indigo paper with a 
sodium carbonate paper are placed in a test tube with 30 
minims of pure water, one minim of the mine is added, 
and the pale blue solution is boiled 60 to 90 seconds. It 
is best not to allow the fluid actually to boil, but to main- 
tain it at the boiling point. No more of the indigo paper 
should be used than will suffice to produce a distinctly 
blue solution. If sugar is present, the color slowly 
changes to purple, red, and finally pale yellow. Where 
there is less than 2 grains of sugar to the fluid ounce the 
color becomes simply red or purple, and it is possi- 
ble to estimate approximately the quantity of sugar by 
diluting the urine to J-, etc., until the limit of the 
reaction is reached. 
2. Picric acid in combination with sodium carbonate. 
This test, introduced by Dr. Geo. Johnson, is capable of 
detecting very minute traces of sugar. A picric acid 124 
EXAMINATION OF URINE. 
paper with two or three grains of sodium carbonate* is 
put into a test-tube containing 30 minims of water, 5 
minims of the urine is added, and the mixture boiled one 
minute. If sugar is present the solution assumes a red- 
dish color, becoming a deep ruby or garnet red if there 
is much sugar. 
Normal urine always gives an indication of sugar by 
either of these tests, but if the quantity of urine em- 
ployed does not exceed one minim, the diagnosis of gly- 
cosuria can be made by their means with at least as great 
certainty as by the use of the familiar copper test.” 
Specific gravity beads: These may now be used instead 
of the urinometer, and are included in the case described 
above. All six of the beads are dropped into the urine: 
if all sink the specific gravity is 1005 or less; if all float 
the specific gravity is 1030 or upwards; if three float the 
specific gravity is about normal. 
Sugar test fiasks: Little flasks hermetically sealed and 
containing just enough Fehling’s solution to decompose 
one-fifth grain of glucose are now sold. 
Estimation of Urea: The estimation of urea is 
still far from simple*to the ordinary practitioner. Fitch’s 
ureameter, sold by Hodges, of Utica, has much to recom- 
mend it, and is used as follows: 
Fasten the U tube to burette with rubber bands, place 
in clamp of stand, and lower so that the mouth of burette 
nearly touches the bottom of tumbler filled with water. 
The temperature of the urine, water and solution of 
hypobromite should be that of the room, and not below 
70° F. 
By suction through tube fill the burette with water and 
close its pinch cock. Place in the bottle 10 c. c. hypo- 
bromite solution freshly prepared. Pour into the test 
* The sodium carbonate contained in a single soda paper is insufficient. EXAMINATION OF URINE. 
125 
tube the urine until it reaches the graduation of 2.t 
c. c.; if there is an excess it is easily removed, by 
absorbent cotton on the end of a probe, to the exact 
measure. Place the tube inside the bottle, taking care 
that its contents do not mix with those of the bottle. 
Put in the rubber stopper with pinch cock open. Now 
close pinch cock, take the bottle in the holder and incline 
the bottle so that the urine and hypobromite solution can 
thoroughly mix. After the evolution of gas ceases, read 
off the number of cubic centimeters of water displaced 
from burette (reading from top of burette downward), 
which number represents the parts of urea in one 
thousand parts of urine. 
Before each estimation it is well to lift burette above 
level of water in tumbler. Open pinch cock and blow 
through burette. Empty the tumbler and refill with 
fresh water, thus obviating drawing into lungs the gases 
of previous operation. 
Solutions: Solution Soda.—Dissolve 40 grms. caustic 
soda in water until it measures 200 c. c. The glass 
stopper had better be paraffined so that it can be easily 
removed from the bottle. 
Solution Hypobromite Soda.-—Take 50 c. c. solution 
soda, add to it c. c. of bromine; shake until bromine 
is all dissolved. This quantity makes five determinations, 
but but must be used the day it is made. 
Quantitative estimation of Albumin: Use Tauret’s 
solution, 1 c. c. of which precipitates one-tenth of a 
gram of albumin. Add carefully and slowly, letting pre- 
cipitate settle until no precipitate is obtained by adding 
a drop of the solution to the supernatant liquid. (See 
Appendix for Tauret’s solution.) PART III. 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
Chapter I. 
Toxicology: Branch of medical science treating of 
the nature, properties, and effects of poisons. 
Definition of poison: No satisfactory definition can 
be given. 
Administration of poison: By month, rectum, va- 
gina, lungs, subcutaneously; in form of solids, liquids, or 
gases, uncombined or mixed with various matters. 
Effects: Local and remote; local effects are chiefly 
corrosion, irritation or inflammation, specific effect on 
sentient extremities of nerves; remote effects are common 
(such as constitutional indications of inflammatory fever) 
and specific, as effects of opium in contracting pupil, pro- 
ducing constipation, etc. 
Remote effects of particular poisons: 
Morphine and alcohol affect brain; 
Strychnine affects cord; 
Curare affects motor nerves; 
Digitalis affects heart; 
Stramonium affects lungs; 
Antimony and arsenic affect stomach; 
Mercury affects the liver; 
Cantharides affects the urinary organs; 
Ergot affects the uterus. 
Shock: Powerful poisons may cause death from shock. 
Modification of action: Dose, mechanical state, 
chemical constitution, mental and bodily condition of pa- 
tient. Substances deadly in large doses; often useful in 
small. Gases, as a rule, more active than fluids, fluids 
than solids; a pure soluble substance more active than 
one mixed with foreign insoluble materials. The more GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
127 
soluble in water, the more speedy the effect of a com- 
pound; substances insoluble in water, but soluble in the 
gastric juice, more dangerous than those insoluble in the 
fluids of the body. Maniacs can endure heavier doses of 
sedatives than ordinary individuals; persons accustomed 
to a drug can endure heavier doses of it than others, 
especially in the case of opium. 
Diagnosis of poisoning: A person may be supposed 
to be suffering from the effects of a poison, if, soon after 
taking food or drink, he be seized with violent pain, vom- 
iting, purging and. convulsicfris; or if he be attacked 
under the same circumstances with delirium or great 
drowsiness. [See also Administration. ] 
Post-mortem appearances: Not always character- 
istic. May be of negative value in showing that a cer- 
tain poison has not been given. Detection of poison in 
food or vomit important, but whether mixed by design 
or not must be considered. 
Duties of the physician: Preserve life if possi- 
ble; if not, forward the interests of justice as follows: 
Inquire, and write down results of inquiry, as to time 
any substance was last taken by deceased, the nature of 
all symptoms, the hour when they began, the precise 
hour of death. Take possession of all food, medicine, 
vomited matters, mine or faeces present in the room; put 
them in new clean vessels, seal and label. Observe posi- 
tion, temperature of the body, appearance of countenance, 
presence or absence of rigor mortis, nature and warmth 
of apartment, situation of any marks of violence, condi- 
tion of inside of mouth and gullet. 
Post-mortem examination: Pass a double liga- 
ture around the oesophagus, and also around the duode- 
num, a few inches below the pylorus; cut between the 
ligatures, above and below, and the stomach may be 
removed without loss of contents. Make a ligature low 128 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
down in rectum and remove intestines for examination 
also. Save all possible blood and as much of the liver 
as possible. In the case of women inspect vagina, ova- 
ries, uterus. Brain, spinal cord, thoracic viscera should 
be examined, and portions of spleen, kidneys and muscles 
reserved for analysis. Place all organs, etc., removed, 
in clean large jars, without alcohol or any antiseptic or 
preservative fluid, seal, number, label and initial. 
Behavior of suspected persons: Note any sus- 
picious conduct on the part of those surrounding the 
poisoned individual before, during, and after death of 
the patient. (Tanner.) 
Household treatment of poisoning: A paper on 
treatment of poisoning where modern appliances are not 
at hand or where it is difficult to obtain the services of a 
skilled physician has been published by Dr. C. W. Dallis 
in Lippincotfs Magazine, as follows: 
(1.) If the poison is not known.—If the patient should 
vomit at once—which is often the case—this should be 
encouraged; if not, it must be provoked. The simplest 
way to do this is to give large draughts of lukewarm 
water, and thrust a finger down the throat. If there be 
time, and it is at hand, a teaspoonful or two of ground 
mustard may be stirred up in the water, or a half-tea- 
spoonful of powdered ipecac, or a tablespoonful of the 
syrup of ipecac. Further, let it be remembered that 
there is no occasion for fastidiousness; any water will do. 
Water in which hands—or dishes, for that matter—have 
been washed, may by its very repulsiveness act more 
quickly than anything else; and if soap has been used 
it will be all the better for that, as soap is an antidote 
for acid poisons. And the quantity used must be large; 
the sufferer must be urged to drink and drink, a pint at 
a time, until he can contain no more, and has been made 
to vomit over and over again. GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
129 
After copious vomiting give soothing liquids, oil, milk, 
beaten-up raw eggs, all in moderately large quantities. If the 
hands and feet are cold, the lips blue, the face pale, and there 
is a cold perspiration on the forehead and about the mouth, 
give some stimulant; strong moderately hot tea is the 
best; strong coffee next. To these may be added brandy, 
whisky, wine or alcohol, in tablespoonful doses for adults, 
half as much for a child ; or the spirits may be given 
mixed with a little hot water. Warm coverings should be 
used, and if the depression be great, hot-water cans or 
hot bricks wrapped in one or two thicknesses of blanket 
should be laid by the side of the chest, or a huge poultice 
placed like a jacket round the body, or a blanket wrung 
out of hot water and covered with a dry one. In cases of 
poisoning then:— 
1. Send for a doctor.* 
2. Provoke copious and repeated vomiting. 
3. Give bland soothing fluids: oil, milk or eggs. 
4. Stimulate if there be depression. 
Acid poisons: There are chiefly oil of vitriol (sul- 
phuric acid), nitric and muriatic acids; they are heavy 
sometimes yellowish looking fluids, the first not unlike oil 
in appearance but very heavy in a bottle. The others are 
lighter and give off extremely pungent irritating fumes. 
All discolor anything on which they fall; the first blackens 
pine wood, the others turn it yellow. All burn horribly 
and leave no doubt of their caustic nature. The treat- 
ment for poisoning by these acids is to give an alkali. If 
hartshorn be at hand it may be mixed with water (table- 
spoonful to two teacupfuls of water) and given ; or soda, 
magnesia, lime, 'whitewash, chalk, tooth paste, whiting, 
plaster, or soap may be stirred up in water and given ; or 
on a pinch, wood ashes might be used. No time should 
* It will be remembered that these are directions to a household. 130 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
be wasted in selecting ; the nearest thing should be used 
at once. As soon as the antidote is down, provoke vomit- 
ing, which should be repeated once or twice. Next give 
bland liquids and afterward secure rest and employ 
stimulants if necessary. In a word then :— 
1. Give alkalies. 
2. Provoke vomiting. 
3. Give soothing liquids. 
4. Secure rest. 
5. Stimulate if necessary. 
Oxalic acid comes in small, heavy, bright, colorless 
crystals, causing a clear rattle in a bottle or jar. The 
best antidote for this is lime. Give lime water, white- 
wash, toothpowder, chalk, whiting or plaster from a wall. 
Carbolic acid is usually in solution as a thick, clear or 
dusky fluid. Taken by the mouth it causes whitening or 
shrivelling of the mucous membrane with intense burning 
and numbness. It acts quickly and benumbs the stomach 
so that it is hard to provoke vomiting. Attempts to pro- 
voke vomiting should be made and large amounts of oil 
or milk given ; rest, warmth of body and stimulation must 
be secured. 
Alkaline poisons: These are ammonia, always in 
fluid form (hartshorn), clear, if by itself, and with an un- 
mistakable odor; potash and soda usually dissolved and 
sometimes in form of lye. Liniments sometimes contain 
these substances and are swallowed by mistake. The 
alkalies usually burn intensely but not so deeply as the 
mineral acids. Treatment: vinegar undiluted and in 
pint doses ; lemon juice may be used. Vomiting should 
next be provoked, followed by bland, acid or oily drinks ; 
rest and stimulation if necessary. In cases of poisoning 
by an alkali then proceed as follows:— 
1. Give an acid (vinegar). 
2. Provoke vomiting. GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
131 
3. Give acid or oily liquids. 
4. Secure rest. 
5. Stimulate if necessary. 
Acids and alkalies act as direct irritants; other poisons 
entering the system may cause poisoning in a stricter 
sense. The commonest are arsenic, sugar of lead, corro- 
sive sublimate and tartar emetic. 
Arsenic: This substance comes as a white* sweetish 
powder often used to destroy domestic pests. It usually 
provokes vomiting and violent pain in the stomach. The 
vomiting must be encouraged and dialyzed iron* given; 
this can be procured at any drug store. It should be 
given freely in tablespoonful doses and each dose fol- 
lowed by a teaspoonful of common salt in a little water. 
After this, vomiting should again be provoked and a dose 
of castor oil given. Paris green is an arsenical prepara- 
tion, and if taken as a poison must be treated like simple 
arsenic. 
Sugar of Lead comes in white lumps or in pow- 
der. Treatment consists in administration of an emetic 
—magnesium sulphate, milk, eggs, castor oil. 
Corrosive Sublimate comes in small colorless 
crystals or in clear solution; is used to destroy insects. 
Treatment is to give an emetic and tea, afterward eggs 
and milk. 
Tartar Emetic is a white powder. Treatment, 
same as for corrosive sublimate. 
Phosphorus: This substance is often chewed off 
the ends of matches; it acts more slowly than the other 
poisons. Give 5-grain doses of copper sulphate in wa- 
ter at intervals of ten minutes till vomiting is provoked, 
then afterward give magnesia. 
Opium: This poison may be in the form of opium, 
laudanum, paregoric, black drop, soothing syrups, pain- 
* See chapter on arsenic. 132 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
destroyers, etc. The symptoms are deep sleep, narrow- 
ing of the pupil of the eye to a small circle not enlarging 
in the dark. The treatment consists in the administration 
of emetics so that vomiting may be promptly and persist- 
ently brought about; twenty-grain doses of zinc sulphate 
may be given for this purpose. Strong coffee should be 
given. Electricity may be necessary to rouse the patient, 
in which case the current should be applied to the skin 
of the chest strongly enough to cause pain and provoke 
efforts at crying. Instead of fatiguing the patient by 
walking him round, etc., it is better to lay him on a 
lounge and slap the skin with the back of a brush or 
with a slipper. Artificial respiration may be resorted to, 
as follows: Place a roll of cloth under the patient’s 
shoulders, slowly draw the arms away from the sides and 
round till they meet above the head, then quickly double 
them and push them down hard against the sides of the 
chest; it may be practiced eighteen times to the minute. 
Chloral comes in the form of damp, colorless crystals, 
but is usually in form of solution. The treatment is the 
same as for opium. 
Strychnine: This is a white powder, having an in- 
tensely bitter taste. The symptoms are lockjaw, stiffness 
of the jaws, and then of the limbs and body. The treat- 
ment consists in the administration of an emetic and a 
purgative, thirty-grain doses of potassium bromide, 
twenty-grain doses of chloral, or both (to an adult). The 
room should be quiet and dark, with all doors, windows and 
shutters closed to keep out sights, sounds and draughts. 
Aconite: This poison is sometimes found in lini- 
ments. The treatment is the administration of emetics 
and stimulants. 
Summary.—POISON. 
1. Unknown. Provoke repeated vomiting; give bland 
liquids; stimulate if necessary. GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
133 
2. Acids. Give alkalies; provoke vomiting; give 
bland liquids; secure rest; stimulate if necessary. 
3. Alkalies. Give acid (vinegar); provoke vomiting; 
give bland liquids; secure rest; stimulate if necessary. 
4. Arsenic. Provoke vomiting; give dialyzed iron 
and salt; repeat several times; secure rest and give 
stimulants if necessary. 
5. Sugar of Lead. Give Epsom salts; provoke vom- 
iting; repeat; give bland liquids; give castor oil. 
6. Corrosive Sublimate—Tartar Emetic. Provoke 
vomiting; give tea without milk; repeat; give raw eggs 
and milk; give castor oil; stimulate if necessary. 
7. Phosphorus. Provoke vomiting; give five-grain 
doses copper sulphate; give a dose of magnesia, but no 
oil. 
8. Opium—Chloral. Provoke vomiting; give strong 
coffee without milk; keep up the breathing. 
9. Strychnine. Provoke vomiting once or twice; 
give purgatives; keep patient absolutely quiet. 
10. Aconite. Provoke vomiting; stimulate well. 
11. Lunar Caustic (Silver Nitrate). Give strong so- 
lution salt and water; provoke vomiting. Repeat many 
times. 
12. Alcohol. Provoke vomiting; give hartshorn and 
water. 
13. Jamestown Weed, Hemlock, Nightshade, 
Toadstools, Tobacco. Provoke vomiting; stimulate 
well. 
14. Decayed Meat or Vegetables. Provoke vom- 
iting; give purgative; give powdered charcoal. 
To provoke vomiting give pint at a time of warm wa- 
ter, with or without ground mustard (tablespoonful to 
pint), or give ipecac (teaspoonful of the powder or a table- 
spoonful or two of the syrup), or thrust the finger down 
the throat of the patient. 134 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
Bland Liquids are milk, raw eggs, gruel, oil. 
Stimulants are tea, coffee, whisky, wine or hartshorn 
(teaspoonful to a teacupful of water at a dose). In mak- 
ing tea or coffee mix hot water with the leaves or grounds 
and give the whole. Alkalies (to be used as antidotes 
to acids) are hartshorn and water (tablespoonful in two 
teacupfuls), soap and water, lime, whiting, soda, chalk, 
tooth powder, plaster, magnesia, whitewash, wood ashes. 
Acids (to be used as antidotes to alkalies) are vinegar 
and lemonade. Never wait for an antidote to dissolve, 
but stir it up in any fluid at hand, except oil, and cause 
the patient to swallow it at once. 
Instruments: Stomach pump, hypodermic syringe, 
soft rubber catheter, enema syringe. If no stomach 
pump is at hand, pass end of long rubber tube down the 
oesophagus and into the stomach. Raise free end above 
patient’s head, attach a small funnel to it and pour in 
enough water to fill stomach. Next carry free end below 
level of the stomach, and the contents of the latter will 
flow out. This process may be repeated indefinitely. In 
prolonged cases the bladder may be catheterized. If it 
be necessaiy to use the battery, place one pole at side of 
neck, the other over pit of stomach or over muscles of the 
chest; or both poles may be applied to the chest touching 
each to a different attachment of muscles, using strong 
current, exciting pain and producing efforts at crying. 
Flagellation may be requix-ed to combat depression 
produced by narcotics ; slap the skin with wet towels, nib 
soles of feet with stiff hair brash ; do not walk the patient 
i*ound but lay him on sofa and flagellate. 
Douches: May be used to aid in rousing when there 
is stupor and depression; dash cold and warm water 
alternately on the head and chest of patient. In appar- 
ently hopeless cases, two or three sharp blows on chest in 
quick succession will sometimes restore the heart’s action. GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
135 
Stimulation: If stimulants bo required, alcoholic 
ones may be used if the poison be not a narcotic; use 
coffee where belladonna, opium, and other narcotics are 
the poison ; give an enema of a pint of hot, strong coffee. 
Ammonia is a stimulant and may be given by inhalation 
or injected into veins. Strong tea is an excellent 
stimulant, and also acts as an antidote to many poisons. 
Whiffs of ether will stimulate heart’s action. (Gatchell 
in “Key Notes.”) Aromatic spirits of ammonia is often 
used. 
Procedures on part of the Chemist: On receiving 
stomach, etc., for analysis note in writing: 
1. Name of person from whom received. 
2. Date upon which received. 
3. Place at which delivered. 
4. Number of articles with description. 
5. Condition in which articles were (whether securely 
sealed, etc., or not) when received. 
The analyst should require the materials sent for 
analysis to be forwarded by hand and delivered to him- 
self personally.* After receiving the materials the fol- 
lowing precautions should be observed: 
1. The matters for analysis should be kept under 
lock and key, no duplicate key being in possession of a 
second person. 
2. The analysis must be conducted by the chemist 
alone. 
3. In opening bottles or jars, the seals should not be 
broken but cut out unbroken and preserved for identifi- 
cation if necessary, in the witness box. 
4. Analysis should be begun as soon as possible owing 
to volatility of many poisons. 
5. Contents of different jars should be examined sep- 
arately. 
* Not an easy matter to bring about in this country. 136 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
6. Every solid should be weighed and every liquid 
measured. 
7. Only one-third or one-half of the contents of each 
jar should be examined at first, so that in case of accident 
the process may be repeated. 
8. Only apparatus that is thoroughly clean should be 
used—preferably, that which has never been used before 
—and such reagents as have been proved by the chemist 
himself to be pure. 
9. Certainty of the presence of a poison can be shown 
only by results of a combination of tests. 
10. Solutions should be concentrated before being 
tested. 
11. The delicacy of tests is interfered with by presence 
of complex organic mixtures. 
12. In all cases the quantity of poison should be 
estimated. 
13. In examining the stomach, the contents should be 
poured into a measuring glass and the quantity noted ; 
next the stomach itself should be opened, spread out on 
a clean white plate and its internal appearance noted in 
writing ; with a hand magnifying glass the surface should 
be inspected and possibly fragments of leaves, fruits, 
seeds or roots may be noticed or adherent poivders, like 
magnesia, calomel, arsenic, or crystals, as oxalic acid, or 
shining particles, as cantharides, yellow sulphide of ar- 
senic, orange sulphide of antimony, or coloring matters, 
as in case of vermin killers, or pieces of matches; what- 
ever be found should be preserved. The intestines should 
be examined in a similar manner. 
14. In examining the contents of the stomach the fol- 
lowing points should be noted: The quantity by meas- 
ure ; the odor, whether of alcohol, chloroform, carbolic 
acid, prussic acid, opium, etc.; the color, whether dark, 
grumous, charred, as due to mineral acids; the reaction, GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
137 
whether acid or alkaline ; the consistency and apparent 
composition; so that an idea may be had of how long be- 
fore death the person had a meal, and of what the meal 
consisted. In suspected cases of poisoning in children, 
note presence or absence of starchy matters, milk, etc. 
(Woodman and Tidy.) 
Letheby’s process of systematic analysis: 
Put stomach and contents into clean, wide-mouthed 
glass bottle. Stand this in some warm water in a basin, 
covering mouth of bottle with clean glass plate, upon 
which a drop of a solution of silver nitrate has been so 
placed that it will be freely exposed to the vapors arising 
from the fluid in the bottle. If prussic acid be present, 
the drop of silver solution will soon turn white from for- 
mation of silver cyanide, soluble in boiling nitric acid 
(silver chloride stain insoluble). Immediately after re- 
moving the glass plate having on it the silver salt, place 
over the bottle in a similar manner another glass having 
on it a drop of caustic potash solution. Allow this to 
remain for a short time, and after removing it, take the 
bottle at once out of the water and put the stopper in. 
Touch the spot of potash solution writh a drop, on a glass 
rod, of a mixed solution of ferrous and feme sulphate,* 
when, if hydrocyanic (prussic) acid be present, a brown- 
ish-green precipitate is produced, which becomes blue 
(Prussian blue) on the addition of a little dilute sul- 
phuric acid. Next put a portion of the contents into a 
retort connected with a Liebig’s condenser (apparatus for 
condensing vapors into liquids) and a well cooled receiver 
and heat the retort by means of a salt-water bath inter- 
posed between the naked flame and retort. Distil over 
about one-sixth of the quantity in the retori and test dis- 
tillate for hydrocyanic acid. If found, and the stomach 
contents were not alkaline, the acid was present in a free 
*Ferrous sulphate exposed to the air will do. 138 
GJENEKAL TOXICOLOGY. 
state, but if the contents were alkaline before distillation 
it must have been present in the original liquid as a 
cyanide no matter how it may have been administered. 
Continue the distillation into a fresh receiver almost to 
dryness. In the distillate other volatile poisons will be 
found, and their presence for the most part may easily 
be detected by their odor, such, e. g., as the volatile oils, 
alcohol, chloroform, ether, turpentine, carbolic acid, nitro- 
benzole, benzole, etc. Appropriate tests may be made 
for these. If there is no evidence of volatile poisons 
acidulate contents of retort with a few drops of pure sul- 
phuric acid, and once more distil into a small receiver 
containing silver nitrate solution (or caustic potash solu 
tion), and the silver solution may be tested for cyanide 
of silver in case of a precipitate. 
Whether anything be found thus far or not, if further 
work is to be done proceed as follows: Treat all the 
acidulated materials in the retort with about twice their 
bulk of alcohol, and allow the mixture to stand in a warm 
place for about twelve hours, occasionally shaking. Fil- 
ter the liquid through thick blotting-paper and preserve 
the solid matters on the filter paper; examine the filtrate 
first as follows: through one-lialf of the clear filtrate pass 
a stream of well-washed sulphuretted hydrogen for some 
time. If arsenic, sugar of lead, corrosive sublimate, tar- 
tar emetic, or any metallic chloride soluble in alcohol be 
present, a precipitate will be formed, whilst any change 
of color produced by a minute trace of metallic salts is 
best noted by comparing the color of that portion of the 
filtrate through which the sulphuretted hydrogen has 
been passed with that portion unacted upon by the gas. 
If there is any sign of a precipitate the gas should then 
be passed for a considerable time through the whole fil- 
trate. After standing for twenty-four hours the solution 
should be filtered, and the precipitate on the filter paper GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
139 
examined for the several metals by different approved 
chemical processes. If, at this stage of the examination, 
distinct evidence was obtained of the presence of arsenic 
(yellow precipitate, with sulphuretted hydrogen, etc.), it 
would be advisable to take the whole of the solid matters, 
and, if the liquid contents mix with hydrochloric acid, 
distil in a retort to dryness, fresh hydrochloric acid being 
afterward poured on the materials in the retort and again 
distilled. By this means you will obtain a clear distil- 
late containing all the arsenic as a chloride, and rendering 
the estimation of the quantity present easy. If no results 
are obtained by passing sulphuretted hydrogen through 
the filtrate, allow it to stand for twenty-four hours un- 
covered, so that the gas may escape. Add now to the 
whole filtrate an excess of a solution of subacetate of lead 
and filter. A precipitate occurring contains, besides 
gummy matters, etc., sulphuric, phosphoric, oxalic, and 
other vegetable acids, such as meconic acid, in combina- 
tion with lead. Diffuse this precipitate through water 
and pass sulphuretted hydrogen through it to complete 
saturation, judging when it is complete by the fact of the 
solution blackening lead paper. Filter off the sulphide 
of lead formed and examine the filtrate for acids, such as 
sulphuric, phosphoric, oxalic, meconic, etc. Next go 
back to filtrate obtained in filtering solution containing 
precipitate produced by the acetate of lead; pass sulphu- 
retted hydrogen through it until all the lead which was 
added in excess be thrown down. Filter off the lead sul- 
phide, and evaporate the filtrate in a beaker almost to 
dryness; add to this a drop of acetic acid and about a 
drachm of water and filter. Evaporate once more the 
filtrate almost to dryness; add to it a few drops of water, 
and supersaturate with a solution of pure caustic potash. 
Put this into a long, narrow test tube and shake up thor- 
oughly with three or four times its bulk of ether, and 140 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
allow the whole to stand until the ethereal and watery 
solutions have completely separated. If any difficulty be 
experienced in causing the ether to separate, either try 
to break down the vesicles of ether with a glass rod, or 
else add a little more ether and a little water. Next de- 
cant the colorless ethereal solution in the following man- 
ner: Fix an elastic india-rubber ball to a pipette of 
large size, press out the air with forefinger, introduce 
end of pipette into liquid, not below the ether layer; treat 
watery solution with fresh ether, shake, allow to settle, 
and withdraw ethereal solution as before, repeating the 
process several times if necessary. [If morphia or other 
bodies of limited solubility in ether be suspected, use 
chloroform instead of ether in the process.] 
Put all the clear ethereal solutions withdrawn by 
pipette into a small flask fitted with a long tube and con- 
nected with a receiver kept perfectly cold, and apply a 
gentle heat, collecting and saving the ether that distils 
over. The residue left in the flask should now be dis- 
solved out with a little dilute acetic acid, and filtered, if 
turbid, so as to separate any fatty matters that may be 
left. The residue left on the filter paper will as a rule 
be pure enough to be tested for alkaloids at once, but if 
not, treat with caustic potash solution again and take up 
with ether once more. Take the ether distillate, allow 
to evaporate spontaneously, add a few drops of pure con- 
centrated sulphuric acid, and allow mixture to stand for 
twelve hours in a warm place, so as to char organic sub- 
stances. Dilute with water, supersaturate with potassic 
carbonate, and treat again with ether, let settle, remove 
ethereal solution, allow to evaporate spontaneously, and 
test residue for various alkaloids with the color tests. If 
no reaction be produced by color tests, try effects of resi- 
due on frog. (See Strychnine.) 
Now go back to thick blotting-paper used in first part GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
141 
of the process, take all the solids left on this paper, cut 
up the stomach itself, and any other solid matters to be 
examined, into very small pieces, bruise them in a mor- 
tar, place them in a large flask, add to them a mixture of 
two parts water and one part of pure hydrochloric acid, 
and slowly and by degrees bring the mixture up to the 
boiling point. Do not, however, let it boil fast, or for 
more than a few minutes, and afterward set it aside to 
cool, and when sufficiently cold, filter, preserving the 
materials on the filter paper. To the clear filtrate, placed 
in a glass flask, add one or two small pieces (1| by 4 in.) 
of pure copper-foil; the copper should be thoroughly 
cleansed, first by igniting it in a Bunsen burner, then 
acting upon it for a minute with nitric acid, and after- 
ward thoroughly washing with water. In this way the 
copper will be rendered perfectly bright, and after clean- 
ing should not be touched with the fingers. Introduce 
the copper-foil into the clear hydrochloric acid solution, 
and boil. If the copper becomes coated, then add fresh 
pieces of copper, piece by piece, until there is no longer 
any perceptible discoloration of the last piece that was 
added. Now remove the pieces of copper, and having 
washed and dried them between folds of bibulous paper, 
examine the deposit, whatever it may be (mercury, 
arsenic, antimony, etc.), by the appropriate tests. Lastly 
take all the materials left on the last filter paper and in- 
cinerate in a Berlin porcelain crucible. Act on the resi- 
due with nitric acid, and having diluted with water, 
filter, and pass sulphuretted hydrogen through the fil- 
trate. In this way any lead or other substances not dis- 
solved out by other means, will be discovered. Chapter II.—ARSENIC, MORPHINE, STRYCHNINE. 
Arsenic: 
Symptoms.—Faintness. Nausea. Incessant vomiting. 
Burning pain in epigastrium, worse on pressure, and 
later all over abdomen. Headache (frontal). Diarrhoea. 
Constriction and heat in fauces and throat. Thirst. 
Catching, painful respiration. Quick, feeble pulse; de- 
pressed action of the heart. Restlessness and anxiety. 
Cold, clammy skin. Perhaps tenesmus, with heat and 
even excoriation round the anus. Death within twenty- 
four hours. 
Variations.—Pains and vomiting absent. Coma pres- 
ent. Twitching or cramps, especially of legs, present. 
Sometimes tetanus. Remission of symptoms; patient 
rallies to sink more rapidly. Death from collapse, some- 
times from convulsions. 
Vomited Matters.—-Clear, ropy, red or brown. 
Post-Mortem Appearances.—Acute inflammation of the 
stomach, often extending along duodenum, small intes- 
tines, and colon. Stomach intensely inflamed and con 
taining dark grumous fluid mixed with tenacious mucus, 
occasionally tinged with blood. On removing contents 
the mucous membrane is seen to be red and inflamed, 
especially around certain spots, where particles of the 
poison may be found adhering. 
Treatment.—If poison just taken, use stomach pump, 
otherwise emetics; but if there is already vomiting, pro- 
mote it by giving raw eggs and milk, equal parts oil and 
lime-water. When vomiting is over give an ounce of 
castor oil. After thus evacuating stomach give large 
doses ferric hydrate and act on kidneys with nitrate of 
potassium. 
Fatal Dose.—Two and one-half grains. 
Time of Death.—From two to three hours. (Tanner.) GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
143 
Tests.—[See Systematic Analysis.] In solid state, 
heated, gives white smoke and is volatilized; heated in 
test tube, sublimes and small octahedral crystals settle on 
sides; heated with fresh powdered charcoal in a test- 
tube, a ring of gray color will be found on cool portion 
of tube and garlic odor noticed. In solution: Evapo- 
rate few drops on glass slide and observe octahedral crys- 
tals with microscope. To some of the solution add am- 
monio-nitrate of silver, and a rich yellow precipitate 
falls. To fresh amount add a little ammonio-sulphate 
of copper, and a pale green precipitate falls. To a fresh 
amount add hydrochloric acid and sulphuretted hydrogen 
water, a lemon-yellow precipitate falls. With a fresh 
amount try Marsh’s test and distinguish from antimony 
by arsenic flame, being bluish white, and having slight 
odor of garlic, and arsenic stain being lustrous and solu- 
ble in solution of calcium hypochlorite. [Remove or- 
ganic matter by the following process: Cut into shreds. 
Mix with one-eighth its bulk pure hydrochloric acid. 
Heat to boiling and from time to time add crystals of 
potassium chlorate until the solids become a straw-yellow 
fluid. Treat with sodium bisulphite until a distinct smell 
of sulphurous acid is given off. Next pass H2S for some 
time into it, which will throw down most metallic poi- 
sons in the form of sulphides. (Do not mistake a depo- 
sit of sulphur for a precipitate. If any doubt, col- 
lect the deposit, wash well, and to a small amount add 
ammonium sulphide, which will dissolve the sulphide of 
arsenic, if such it be, but not sulphur.) N. B.—The 
Marsh test for arsenic is interfered with by presence of 
organic matter.] 
Remarks.—Emetics: 
The use of apomorphine as an emetic is in general to 
be recommended, especially when no stomach pump is at 
hand or when the jaws of the patient are tightly clenched. 144 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
(This substance is an alkaloid prepared by heating 
morphine in a sealed tube to about 300° F. for two or 
three hours with large excess of hydrochloric acid. 
Formula C17 H17 N02. Colorless, amorphous, green on 
exposure to air, more soluble in water and alcohol than 
morphine, gives an amethyst tint with feme chloride— 
morphine with this reagent a greenish-blue.) In solution 
(1 part in 50) subcutaneous injections of from 3 1-2 to 
10 minims (1-15 to 1-5 grain) trill produce emesis in 
from two to five minutes, with one rush, no nausea but 
violent and visible muscular action of walls of stomach. 
Said not to produce emesis in cases of chloroform poison- 
ing. Rees puts the amount for subcutaneous injection 
for an infant at 1-100 grain. Mustard does not always 
work well as an emetic. Finlay reports a case of poison- 
ing by 26 grains of arsenic where the symptoms were 
collapse, headache, epigastric pain, constriction of the 
chest; mustard did not produce emesis, and although 
the stomach pump was used and the stomach well washed, 
the patient died in an hour. 
Precautions in testing: 
In making tests for arsenic the ammonio-nitrate of 
silver may be prepared by adding a few drops of ammo- 
nium hydrate to a solution of nitrate of silver till the 
brown precipitate first occurring is nearly redissolved; 
the ammonio-sulphate of copper may be prepared by 
adding ammonium hydrate to a solution of sulphate of 
copper till the bluish-white precipitate first formed is 
almost redissolved. In using the ammonio-sulphate 
care must be taken not to add too much to the solution 
of arsenic or its blue color may overpower the green of 
the precipitate. 
Preparation of antidote, ferric hydrate: 
“Ferric hydrate, or the hydrated peroxide of iron, may 
be readily made by adding strong solution of ammonia GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
145 
(liquor anamonige fortior) to tincture of muriate of iron 
or to the liquor ferri perchloridi ; filter, and turn the 
filter paper containing the precipitated hydrate into a 
vessel containing water, shake well and use the precipi- 
tate by spoonfuls as it falls to the bottom.” (Tanner.) 
Post-mortem appearances: 
Putrefaction is said to be remarkably retarded. Wormley 
mentions a case where the body when exhumed at the end 
of three years and a half was found entire and in a re- 
markable state of preservation. 
Vaughan and Dawson show that arsenic injected into 
the mouth and rectum after death becomes diffused and 
may be found in the viscera; hence, processes of em- 
balming may help the criminal and hinder investigators. 
Wormley, however, shows that diffusion takes place more 
readily the sooner after death the injection is made. 
O. C. de Poucy has localized arsenic, in cases of poison- 
ing, in the brain; it seems to be substituted for the 
phosphorus of phospho-glyceric acid, producing an arsenio- 
glyceric acid. Lecithin is so modified as to contain ar- 
senic instead of phosphorus. 
It is thought that arsenic found in the bones is indica- 
tive of the habit of arsenic eating. Ludwig, however4 
holds that arsenic may be found in the bones in both 
acute and chronic poisoning. 
The urine, liver and spleen must be examined for 
arsenic. The urine voided from 1 to 7 hours after ad- 
ministration will contain it. 
Chronic poisoning: Symptoms are loss of appetite, 
silvery coating to the tongue, thirst, nausea, colicky pains, 
diarrhoea, frontal headache, languor, sleeplessness, cuta- 
neous eruptions, soreness of edges of eyelids, emaciation, 
anaemia. 
Arsenical butter: Orfila, Fourcroy, Renault hold 
that arsenic is all the more harmful when given in butter. 146 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
Devergie, Blondlot and Girardin deem the fat an anti- 
dote. Chapuis finds that where arsenic has been given 
in butter that spectroscopic examination of the blood will 
show a black unique ray projecting from the rays D and 
E and not splitting up under the influence of oxygen 
except with the greatest difficulty ; [in ordinary poison- 
ing from arsenic the black ray splits up.] This is due, in 
the case of arsenic mixed with butter, to the presence of 
arseniuretted hydrogen in the blood which while the 
circulation is normal is eliminated, but when the circula- 
tion becomes sluggish, sudden death preceded by vomit- 
ing, diarrhoea, etc., may take place. The poison may not 
be localized after death. 
Arsenic in the arts: 
Arsenic, its compounds or derivatives may be used in 
the manufacture of candles, tapers, sheep-washes, vermin- 
killers, rat-paste, wall papers, paper collars and cuffs, 
water-colors, wearing apparel, (socks, feathers, muslin,) 
fly-water, metal-cleaners, wafers, confectionery, artificial 
flowers, preservative soaps, embalming fluids, cigarette 
papers, aniline compounds. It or its derivatives may be 
used in glass-making, white enameling, in coloring wines, 
in stuffing birds and animals, in preventing incrustations 
in boilers, in the various applications of the green pig- 
ments composed of arsenic and copper. (Scheele’s Green, 
Paris Green, Brunswick Green, Schweinfurt’s Green.) 
Arsenic or its compounds may occur as an impurity in 
certain drugs, as for example subnitrate of bismuth, 
phosphate of iron; in the acids hydrochloric and sul- 
phuric ; in commercial sodium carbonate, in tartar 
emetic. It may occur in some form in mineral waters. 
Fly-powder is a mixture of white arsenic and metallic 
arsenic. Certain metals are often contaminated with it 
as zinc and iron; it has been found in ferric chloride 
solutions. Chemists must beware of arsenic in their GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
147 
glassware; Fresenius has found it even in Bohemian 
glass. All alkaline solutions and reagents capable of 
acting on glass, if kept in glass bottles should be care- 
fully examined for arse nic before being employed in an 
analysis for this metal. (Wormley.) 
Arsenic in Paper: 
An article on “Arsenic as a Domestic Poison,” by Dr. 
Edward S. Wood, in the fifth annual report of the Mas- 
sachusetts State Board of Health, Lunacy, and Charity, 
charges many cases of disease upon manufacturers of 
various colored papers. WTall paper is the most common 
source of domestic arsenical poisoning ; green papers are 
not the only ones, but arsenic is found more commonly in 
wall paper of other colors. The cost of the paper is not 
a test, for expensive papers often contain it, while cheap 
ones may not. The most dangerous of other papers are 
the glazed and plated, so largely used by children in 
Kindergarten schools. Some of these papers contain 
large quantities of arsenic, and are particularly danger- 
ous, because children are inclined to put things in their 
mouths. Similar colored papers are used for covering 
boxes which often contain confectionery, and for wrapping 
it. The green paper used for sassafras lozenges, and the 
dark red or magenta colored paper used for checkerberry 
lozenges are highly arsenical. These poisonous papers 
are also used in the manufacture of theatre tickets, play- 
ing cards, and everything else that is made from card 
board. Green color is not to be relied upon as princi- 
pally poisonous, for red, brown, and blue are specially 
arsenical. Arsenic is used in linen glaze and paper 
collars and cuffs. German fly paper is made by soaking 
coarse bibulous paper in a strong solution of arsenite of 
sodium and allowing it to dry. The following articles 
contain arsenical pigments, dyes or mordaunts within the 
knowledge of the British National Health Society: Paper 148 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
fancy and surface colored, for covering cardboard boxes, 
for labels of all kinds, for advertising of all kinds, for 
advertising cards, for playing cards, for wrappers and 
cases for sweetmeats, for the ornamentation of children’s 
toys, for covering books, for lamp shades, for paper 
hangings, for artificial leaves and flowers, lithographic 
color printing, book cloth and fancy bindings. Arsenical 
poisoning is produced by contact with objects containing 
arsenic, by inhaling the poisonous dust and gas that 
come from them, and by swallowing the material.-—Amer- 
ican Druggist. 
Water colors may contain arsenic. According to 
Fleck’s analysis of the viscera of a mechanical draughts- 
man, who died suddenly, showed arsenic in the Tver, 
lungs, kidneys aud heart. Fleck found arsenic in sepia, 
burnt sienna, Vandyke brown, bistre, bladder green, 
brown ochre, Indian red, umber—both raw and burnt—- 
colors which had been used by the unfortunate man. 
Compounds of Arsenic: Arsenious anhydride 
(called also arsenious oxide, arsenious acid, white ar- 
senic) As203; its salts are called arsenites, the salts of 
arsenic anhydride, As205, being called arseniates. Other 
compounds are the sulphide, As2S2, called realgar, ruby 
red in color; the arsenious sulphide, As2S3, called orpi- 
ment, bright yellow in color; the arsenic sulphide, As2S5, 
bright yellow in color; the arsenious chloride, AsC13; 
the arsenious iodide, Asl3, brick-red in color; arseniu- 
retted hydrogen, hydrogen arsenide, arsine, is a gas of 
the formula H3As. 
Medicinal preparations containing arsenic or its 
compounds: 
Liquor Potassi Arsenitis (Fowler’s solution): Each 
fluidrachm contains half a grain of arsenious oxide, anti- 
dote ferric subacetate; sodii arsenias, arseniate of so- 
dium, usually in solution called liquor sodii arseniatis; GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
149 
cigarettes made of paper saturated in this solution* are 
also used in asthma; Liquor Arsenici Chloridi, solution of 
chloride of arsenic, 64 grains of arsenious acid acted on 
by 2 fluidrachms of hydrochloric acid diluted with 4 fluid 
ounces distilled water, until arsenic is dissolved, and in 
cooling water added to make a pint; Arsenici Iodidum, 
iodide of arsenic, used internally and externally; Liquor 
Arsenici et Hydrargyri Iodidi, solution of iodide of ar- 
senic and mercury, Donovan’s solution, aqueous solution 
of the two iodides. 
Homoeopathic preparations: Arsenicum Album, white 
arsenic, As203. Arsenicum Citrinum, orpiment. As2S3. 
Arsenicum Hydrogenisatum, arseniuretted hydrogen, 
H3As. Arsenicum Iodatum, iodide of arsenic, Asl3. Ar- 
senicum Metallicum, metallic arsenic, As. Arsenicum 
Rubrum, disulphide, As2S2, realgar, sandarach. Natrum 
Arsenicicum, arseniate of sodium, Na2Has04. 
Statistics of one hundred cases of poisoning by 
arsenic: 
I find that out of seventy-four cases of poisoning by 
arsenious oxide itself there are only fourteen in which 
the ferric hydrate is known to have been given as an an- 
tidote. The cases are given by Woodman and Tidy in 
seventy-two out of the seventy four, the other two being 
taken from the Lancet and British Medical Journal re- 
spectively for the year 1883. Of the fourteen cases in 
which the iron antidote was given, recovery took place in 
ten, involving sixteen persons; in four cases death took 
place in spite of the use of the antidote, the fatal doses 
in three of the cases being known to be 120, 240, 240 
grains respectively. In other words where the iron anti- 
dote was used death occurred in 28 per cent, of the cases. 
In the report of the sixty cases where the iron antidote 
was not used death is said to have occurred in thirty- 
*Two or three times stronger than the officinal solution. 150 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
seven instances, or in about 61 per cent. Without the 
iron antidote emetics and stomach pump were successful 
in three cases; no treatment is mentioned in fifteen cases 
where recovery took place. In one case recovery was 
due to emetics and nitrate of potassium, although the 
dose was 300 grains. 
In twenty-six cases of poisoning recorded by Wood 
man and Tidy by other preparations of arsenic, one was 
by Fowler’s solution, two by arsenite of sodium, ten by 
arsenite of copper, one by arseniate of sodium, five by 
sulphides of arsenic, one by the chloride, six by arseniu- 
retted hydrogen. Mention of use of the iron antidote in 
these twenty-six cases is only made in one instance, in 
which case the patient died on third day of chest 
affection. In fourteen out of the twenty-six cases death 
took place; of the twelve other cases recovery took place 
in five from arsenite of copper, two from sulphides, one 
from the chloride, two from arseniuretted hydrogen, one 
from arsenite of sodium, and in one case there is no men- 
tion of either death or recovery. In one case where re- 
covery from arseniuretted hydrogen took place, hydrated 
oxide of magnesia was given. 
Summary:— 
Total number of cases, - - - 100 
Deaths of all poisoned took place in • 55 
Recovery of all poisoned took place in - 39 
Some died, others recovered - - 4 
No record, - - - - - - 2 
Many of these cases undoubtedly had little or no skill- 
ful treatment. A record of a similar number of cases in 
modern times in large cities, Avhere physicians can be 
quickly summoned, would probably show a gain in the 
percentage of recoveries over the figures given in this 
table. 
Time Of Death: Arsenic lias killed in twenty min- GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
151 
utes, blit in half the cases on record it proved fatal within 
nine hours. The fatal period has been delayed to ten 
and sixteen days, and in one case to two years. 
Fatal Quantity: While death has taken place from 
one grain in divided doses, recovery has taken place from 
enormous doses. 
Method of detection recommended fry Kalfe: 
Portions of the liver and stomach must be divided as 
finely as possible and placed in a porcelain dish, and a 
mixture, about twice the quantity of the organic matter 
employed, consisting of six parts of distilled water to one 
of hydrochloric acid, is added, and the whole warmed for 
about an hour. After this, small fragments of potassium 
chlorate are to be dropped into the mixture from time to 
time, and the mixture kept constantly stirred, till the 
solid matter has almost completely disappeared. The 
mixture is then filtered through fine linen, the insoluble 
matter left on it being kept for further examination, and 
the acid filtrate divided into three parts: (1.) Place in 
the acid mixture a strip of perfectly pure copper and 
boil for twenty minutes; if there is a deposit on the cop- 
per examine for arsenic, antimony or mercury, liemove 
the strip of copper, wash it with a little distilled water 
to which a few drops of ammonia are added, dry it be 
tween folds of blotting paper, then when quite dry place 
it at the bottom of a narrow glass tube (German glass), 
and apply heat to the lower portion of the tube, taking 
care that the upper end remains cool, and placing the 
finger lightly over the mouth of the tube, so as to keep 
the volatilized matters within it. If arsenic forms the 
crust on the copper, then arsenious acid will sublime and 
be deposited at the upper end of the tube, and this de- 
posit under a low power of the microscope will be found 
to consist of sparkling octohedral crystals. Break off the 
portion containing the deposit and boil it in a test-tube 152 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
for some minutes with distilled water. Test aqueous so- 
lution with (a) few drops of silver ammonium nitrate, 
which gives a bright yellow precipitate, soluble in am- 
monia and nitric acid; (b) solution of cupric ammonio- 
sulphate, which gives a pale apple-green precipitate. If 
arsenic has been found it will be as well to take a fresh 
portion of acidulated filtrate and submit it to Marsh’s 
test. 
An improvement on the usual method of performing 
the Marsh test is suggested by the Moniteur Scientifique 
as follows: The liquid to be tested is introduced into the 
Marsh apparatus and solution of caustic potash (concern 
trated). Aluminum foil is then added, heat applied, and 
arseniuretted hydrogen, but not antimoniuretted, is given. 
Reinscll’s Test: A new chance for error in making 
this test is alluded to by Macallan as follows: “In test- 
ing for arsenic by Reinsch’s method, there is a serious 
source of error which seems to have been overlooked; at 
least, I can find no reference to it in any of the standard 
works on the subject. I allude to the deposition of free 
sulphur, together with cupric sulphide, on the copper, 
and its sublimation when heated. In examining decom- 
posing organic substances, sulphur is frequently de- 
posited, owing to the decomposition of free sulphuretted 
hydrogen, so much so, sometimes, as to take fire and 
burn with a blue flame when a lighted taper is applied 
to the copper. When heated in a tube, the sulphur 
forms a sublimate having a general appearance and be- 
havior similar to that of arsenious oxide in small quan- 
tity, being white and resubliming unaltered. It is men- 
tioned in some works that sulphur cautiously sublimed 
condenses in rhombic octahedrons, but I have not found 
it deposit in that form. Under the microscope, it is seen 
to consist of globules. When, however, these are so small 
as to render their outlines indistinQt, they resemble GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
153 
closely the crystals of arsenious oxide in transparency, 
lustre and aggregation. When doubt exists, the safest 
course might be to procure as much of the sublimate as 
possible, boil down a second time with dilute acid and 
copper, and examine any sublimate obtained microscop- 
ically, and with the usual confirmatory tests.” 
To Detect Arsenic in Wall Paper: Act on the 
paper with ammonia until a' blue solution is formed; 
pour a little of this over a crystal of silver nitrate in a 
white capsule, and note that yellow arsenite of silver is 
formed on the surface. 
Opium: 
Symptoms.—Giddiness, drowsiness, stupor, insensibil- 
ity; slow, stertorous breathing; pulse weak and feeble; 
countenance livid; pupils greatly contracted and insen- 
sible to light; skin cold, livid. Death in from seven to 
twelve hours. 
Variations.—Pupils dilated, countenance ghastly or 
placid, pulse unaffected, vomiting, skin bathed in sweat. 
Post-Mortem Appearances.—Not very characteristic. 
Great turgescence of vessels of the brain, with effusion 
of serum into the ventricles and at the base. Lungs 
usually gorged with fluid blood; right side of heart dis- 
tended with dark fluid blood or clotted blood. (Tanner.) 
Treatment.—Stomach pump. Atropine, subcutane- 
ously. Enemata of strong coffee. Cold shower bath. 
Faradic electricity. 
Fatal Doses.—Smallest fatal dose crude opium, four 
grains; laudanum, two drachms. Average fatal dose, 
morphine, two grains. Infants more susceptible; 1-12 
grain of crude opium (one drop laudanum) has proved 
fatal. 
Time of Death.—From three-quarters of an hour to 
twenty-four hours; if patient survives twelve hours, hope 
of recovery. 154 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
Tests.—[See Systematic Analysis.] 1. Separate from 
organic substances, if necessary, as follows: Boil well 
with distilled water and alcohol acidulated with acetic 
acid and strain. Add solution of lead acetate to the part 
which passes through on straining until no further pre- 
cipitate. Filter. Meconate of lead remains in the filter, 
morphine goes through filter in solution as an acetate, 
(a) Examine first the meconate of lead by washing it off 
the filter (by means of wash-bottle) into water, then pass 
H2S into the mixture of meconate and water, when the 
lead will be thrown down as a sulphide. Filter and me- 
conic acid will go through the filter in a state of solu- 
tion. Evaporate the filtrate carefully to dryness, and 
add to the residue a few drops of solution of perchloride 
of iron; a blood-red coloration (not affected by gold 
chloride solution nor solution of mercuric chloride) indi- 
cates presence of meconic acid. (b) Gro back now to the 
solution of morphine, which went through the filter after 
adding acetate of lead and filtering. Pass H2S into this 
solution for a time, filter, evaporate filtrate over the wa- 
ter bath until well concentrated, then add dilute alcohol, 
filter, and evaporate filtrate to dryness over the water 
bath. The residue is acetate of morphine, which may be 
examined as follows: Add to a few of the crystals a 
drop or two of nitric acid; an orange-red coloration indi- 
cates morphine. To a fresh amount of the powder add 
a drop or two of neutral solution of perchloride of iron, a 
rich blue color is developed—destroyed by nitric acid, 
with development of orange-red. To a fresh amount of 
the substance add pure iodic acid; iodine is set free, giv- 
ing a brown coloration, becoming blue on addition of 
starch paste. 
Remarks. 
Treatment of opium poisoning: By all means use the 
stomach pump, washing out the stomach either with an GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
155 
infusion of coffee or green tea, or else water in which 
finely-powdered charcoal is suspended, using a fresh 
amount for each injection. 
Vomiting must be encouraged, zinc sulphate in five- 
grain doses, with fifteen minutes’ interval, being given; 
after the emetic has worked, the bowels should be opened. 
The patient should be prevented from sleeping by use 
of douches, flagellation, etc., but should not be exhausted 
by muscular fatigue. The cold shower bath is advised 
by some authors. The use of the battery, especially 
when the coma is profound, is very desirable. Prolonged 
artificial respiration is of great value. 
Antidotes: Belladona is used as a physiological anti- 
dote. Administration of fifteen drops of the tincture 
(U. S. P.), repeated in fifteen minutes if necessaiy, has 
been advised; in cases of poisoning by morphine, hypo- 
dermatic injections of atropine may be given. In one 
case subcutaneous injection of 1-35 of a grain of atropine, 
followed in an hour by another, brought about recovery. 
(Stuver.) According to Bonaccorsi, there is antagonism 
between nicotine and morphine, a point to be borne in 
mind in case the physician finds himself in localities 
where tobacco is the only substance obtainable. Strong 
coffee may be given as an antidote in form of enemata. 
Electricity: In using this agent, the idea is to give 
to the patient shocks of sufficient intensity to arouse 
him if possible from coma; the Faradic current is desirable 
for this purpose and also for artificial respiration. In a 
very obstinate case, occurring in 1879, Dr. Delamater used 
the Faradic current continuously both for administering 
shocks and for artificial respiration, for a space of several 
days, employing relays of assistants. The patient eventu- 
ally recovered, although no treatment preceding the use 
of the battery was of avail. In the case treated suc- 
cessfully by Dr. Wm. B. Clarke, of Indianapolis, the 156 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
current was graduated on the third “knob” most of the 
time, a little while on the fourth, the “cylinder” not be- 
ing drawn out at all. 
Strength of Preparations: Woodman and Tidy 
give the following table of English preparations. One 
grain of dried opium is present in the following quanti- 
ties of the several preparations named: 
In 14.5 m. of laudanum (tinctura opii). 
In 14.5 m. of vinum opii. 
In fss. of paregoric elixir (tinctura camphoracomposita). 
In 96 m. of tinctura opii ammoniata. 
In of enema opii. 
In 5 grs. of pilula saponis composita. 
In 8 grs. of pilula plumbi cum opio. 
In 10 grs. of pulvis ipecacuanhae compositus (Dover’s 
powder). 
In 20 grs. of pulvis kino compositus. 
In 30 grs. of pulvis cretae aromaticus cum opio. 
In 10 grs. of pulvis opii compositus. 
In 13.5 grs. of unguentum gallae cum opio. 
In 10 grs. of opium lozenges. 
One grain of opium is equivalent to about half a grain 
of extractum opii. 
Other Preparations of Opium (U. S. P.): 
Pilulae Opii (pills of opium), each 1 grain of powdered 
opium. 
Confectio Opii (confection of opium), 1 grain of opium 
to 36. 
Trochisci Glycyrrhizae et Opii (troches of licorice and 
opium—Wistar’s Cough Lozenges), each 1-20 grain of 
extract of opium, or 1-10 grain of opium. 
Suppositoria Plumbi et Opii (suppositories of lead and 
opium), each 1 grain of extract of opium. 
Tinctura Opii Deodorata (deodorized tincture of opium), 
1 grain of opium to 13 minims or 25 drops. GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
157 
Acetuin Opii (vinegar of opium— black drop), formerly 
1 grain of opium to 61 minims or 13 drops, but now 1 
grain of opium to 9.6 minims. 
Vinum Opii (wine of opium—Sydenham’s Laudanum), 
formerly 1 grain of opium in 8 minims; now 1 grain in 
10.5 minims. 
Liquor Morpliiae Hydrochloratis (solution of morphine 
hydrochlorate), 4 grains of morphine hydrochlorate to 
the fluid ounce of distilled water. 
The 1870 solution of morphine sulphate was 1 grain 
to the fluid ounce; Magendie’s solution used hypodermi- 
cally contains 16 grains to the fluid ounce. 
Suppositories of morphine contain each 1-6 of a grain 
of sulphate of morphine. 
Opium or its preparations may be found in many other 
preparations, as Godfrey's Cordial, Dalby's Carmina- 
tive, Winslow's Soothing Syrup (1 grain of opium to the 
ounce, Pharm. Journal, 1872), Locock's Pulmonic Wa- 
fers, Chlorodyne, Nepenthe, Liquor Opii Sedativus, 
Syrup of Poppies (often made from laudanum), Mc- 
Munn's Elixir (supposed to be about the same as the 
deodorized tincture). 
One Hundred and Twenty Cases of Poisoning 
by Opium: 
Woodman and Tidy quote about 120 cases, of which 
60 were by laudanum alone; of these 60, 31 recovered 
and 29 died. Of the 29 that died 6 had thorough and 
active treatment, belladonna and subcutaneous ammonia 
being tried unsuccessfully in one case; in another case 
emetics and galvanism failed to conquer the coma. Of 
the 31 that recovered, the stomach pump and galvanism 
proved successful in 5 cases, emetics and constant motion 
in 2, emetics and belladona in 2, galvanism in 2, bella- 
dona in 1, stomach pump, ammonia, coffee and galvanism 
in 1, stomach pump, galvanism and cold affusions, face 158 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
struck and prolonged remedies in 1, stomach pump 
alone in 1, emetics, stomach pump, belladona and galvan- 
ism in 1, pricking by a pin (!) in 1, emetics alone in 1; 
in 13 of the cases the treatment, if any, is not mentioned. 
Twenty cases were by opium itself or its preparations 
other than laudanum; of these, death ensued in 9 cases, 
recovery in 11. In the fatal cases no mention of treat- 
ment is made. In the 11 cases where recovery took 
place, the stomach pump was used in 1 case, emetics in 
2, “ active treatment ” in 1. In accounts of the other 
cases no treatment is mentioned. 
Twenty-five cases were by morphine; of these, 14 died 
and 11 recovered. Of the 14 that died, 1 had treatment 
of coffee and caffein injected, but no treatment is men- 
tioned in 13. Of the 11 that recovered, emetics were 
used in 2 cases, emetics, belladonna, galvanism in 1, bel- 
ladonna enema, atropine subcutaneously and galvanism 
in 1, hydrocyanic acid in 1, emetics, subcutaneous 
atropine, electricity in 1, and no treatment mentioned in 
regard to other 5. 
Fourteen cases were from such preparations as God- 
frey’s Cordial, Winslow’s Soothing Syrup, etc.; of these, 
9 died, 4 recovered, 1 no report. 
Summary—W ithout regard for circumstances of treat- 
ment:— 
Total number of cases, - - - 121 
Deaths, ------ 63 
Recoveries, - 57 
Doubtful, ------ 1 
Recent Cases of Opium Poisoning: Stuver (New 
York Medical News) reports a case where eleven grains 
of morphine were taken; patient comatose; pulse, 100. 
Treatment, 1-35 grain atropine subcutaneously followed 
by another in the course of an hour. Recovery. 
In the Cincinnati Lancet and Clinic (p. 655)), I note GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
159 
a case of poisoning by Mrs. Winslow’s Soothing Syrup. 
Five half-teaspoonful doses, at 4, 8 p. m. and 3, 5, 5:45 
a. m. respectively, were given an infant; at 7:45 a. m. 
marked symptoms of poisoning. Treatment, stomach 
and bowels emptied, frequent cold sponging with wet 
cloths on nape of neck, tincture of belladona hourly in 
aqueous solution. In spite of all efforts of parents to keep 
him awake, he fell again into a stupor by 6 p. m. The phy- 
sician recalled; succeeded in arousing him by mechanical 
means; gave belladonna every half hour. At 11 p. m. 
pupils widely dilated, and respiration free. Kecovery. 
(The dose of belladonna is not mentioned.) 
A child of 18 months died from nervous exhaustion 
following the application of thirty grains of opium in a 
salve to a burn. The effects of the opium were neutral- 
ized by the efforts of physicians, but the infant was un- 
able to rally. 
Fatal Doses: 
Children have died from the effects of 1-19 of a grain 
of opium and 2.5 minims of laudanum; 4 grain of the 
acetate of morphine has killed an adult. 
Time of Death: 
Death has taken place in 45 minutes; has been de- 
layed four days. Usual time, nine to ten hours. 
Failure to Detect Morphine; Elimination of 
Morphine: 
The action of the living stomach on opium and or- 
ganic poisons in general is very rapid. Failure to detect 
morphine or meconic acid in the stomach and its con- 
tents has resulted in several cases on analysis. 
In the case of an opium eater, Yoit failed to detect 
morphine in the urine, but did detect it in the execretion 
from the bowels. Nevertheless, the fact of some direct 
elimination by the urine is proved by the analysis of A. 
Wynter-Blyth: In the case of an opium eater who had 160 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
taken tilirty-six grains of the acetate of morphine in one 
day, twelve ounces of fresh mine yielded morphine 
equivalent to 1.2 grains of morphine acetate; on a day 
when the same patient had taken twenty one grains, the 
same quantity of urine yielded the equivalent of one 
grain of the acetate. On a day when the same patient 
took 6| grains, the same amount of urine yielded 0.18 
grain of the salt. 
Strychnine: 
Symptoms.—Bitter taste. Suffocation. Difficulty of 
breathing. Stiffness about neck. Sense of impending 
death. Twitchings of the muscles. Jerkings of the 
lower limbs. Quivering of the whole frame. Limbs 
rigid, head bent back, body stiffened and arched, resting 
on head and heels. Face dusky, eyeballs prominent, lips 
livid, features assume grin. Thirst, but inability to drink 
from spasm of jaws. Patient conscious and alarmed. 
Spasms rapidly succeed each other, and death from suf- 
focation or exhaustion. 
Post-Mobtem Appeabances.— Rigor mortis usually 
persistent. Hands often clenched, soles of feet arched 
and inverted. Membranes of brain and upper part spinal 
cord congested, serous effusion under spinal arachnoid. 
Lungs loaded with dark fluid blood. Heart usually con- 
tracted, sometimes right cavities distended with black 
and liquid blood. (Tanner.) 
Teeatment.—Keep patient warm and quiet. Remove 
poison by stomach pump if no spasms as yet; if spasms 
have begun, emetics. Chloroform for spasms. Chloral 
hydrate as physiological antidote. Wormley, and Wood- 
man and Tidy advise free use of chloroform. It may be 
given internally and by inhalation. 
Fatal Dose.—One-half grain. 
Time op Death.—Five minutes to three hours. Dan- 
ger usually over in two hours. GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
161 
Tests.—[See Systematic Analysis.] First separate 
from organic matter, if necessary, as follows (Stas’s pro- 
cess) : Acidulate material with HC1. Heat over the wa- 
ter-bath. Filter. (Wash what is left in filter with 
boiling distilled water and let this filter.] Evaporate 
and rub residue with distilled water; evaporate again 
and dissolve again, and so on until a tolerably pure prod- 
uct is obtained. Then neutralize with bicarbonate of 
sodium, shake up with chloroform, set aside in tall test- 
tube until the chloroform has risen to top, then with- 
draw with pipette and allow to evaporate spontaneously, 
when the alkaloid will be left behind in a state fit for 
testing. To the crystals add a drop or two of sulphuric 
acid and a fragment of potassium bichromate. A series 
of blue, violet, purple and red tints is produced if strych- 
nine is present. Wipe the skin of a frog dry and apply 
to it a few drops of a solution of the crystals; strong 
tetanic convulsions will take place whenever the animal is 
touched or irritated. 
Remarks.—There is considerable evidence in favor of 
the chloroform treatment of strychnine poisoning. Wood- 
man and Tidy advise the immediate inhalation of chlo- 
roform and the injection and withdrawal of powdered 
charcoal. Wormley favors the internal administration of 
chloroform. Dr. Dresbach, of Tiffin, Ohio, has admin- 
istered chloroform internally with success. In one case 
where three grains of strychnine had been taken, two 
drachms of chloroform internally brought about recovery 
in twenty minutes, when given twenty minutes after the 
poison had been taken. Prolonged internal administra- 
tion and inhalation (both) of chloroform have proved suc- 
cessful. In one case of recovery two drops were given 
every five minutes whenever the mouth could be opened, 
and two pounds consumed in inhalation. In twenty-nine 
cases of recovery which I have noted, fourteen were due 162 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
either wholly or in part to the administration of chloro- 
form. There seems to be no chemical antidote to strych- 
nine, except, perhaps, tannin, and the general reagent 
iodine in potassium iodide. As physiological anti- 
dotes, chloral hydrate and paraldehyde have been lauded; 
opium, conium, ether, cannabis, camphor, calabar bean, 
atropine, amyl nitrite, bromide of potassium, Beta luti- 
dine have all been used. Hydrocyanic acid is deemed 
by Parkinson and Ladell a veritable antidote, but dan- 
gerous to employ. 
Tests for Strychnine: 
Mandelin has discovered a reagent for alkaloids in 
vanado-sulphuric acid, and one particularly suited to 
strychnine, as the peculiar color reaction obtained with 
the latter differs from all other strychnine reactions so far 
known. 
The reagent is prepared by dissolving one part of van- 
adate of ammonium in 100 parts of strong sulphuric 
acid. It is called, by the author, for short, vanado-sul- 
phuric acid (“ Vanadin-Schwefelsaure”), though this 
name, strictly speaking, would belong to a compound 
acid. 
If strychnine be treated with a few drops of this re- 
agent (even when diluted with an equal quantity of 
strong sulphuric acid), upon a watch-glass, on inclining 
the latter so as to let the acid flow on one side, the resi- 
due will assume almost instantly a magnificent blue 
color, which soon passes into violet, afterward into ver- 
milion, red or orange. On adding to the acid, after the 
vermilion tint has made its appearance, a little soda or 
potassa, a quite persistent rose-red to purple color is ob- 
tained, which is rendered still more handsome by dilu- 
tion with water. The same color appears even with sim- 
ple addition of water, and the liquid afterward bears 
dilution with water without losing its tint. GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
163 
If the quantity of alkaloid is small, the test is best 
performed in the following manner: The alkaloid, or 
the residue obtained in any manner from substances sus- 
pected to contain an alkaloid, is put on a watch-glass, 
covered with a few drops of the reagent, and kept so (for 
a few moments) until the solid matter appears to assume 
a bluish tint or begins to acquire color. Then the watch- 
glass is inclined to one side so that the liquid portion 
may flow off the solid residue. If there was any strych- 
nine present, the handsome blue color is most vivid at 
the moment when the acid uncovers the residue. With 
quantities as small as 1-100 milligramme of strychnine, 
the color was still quite pronounced, much more so than 
the color obtained with other reagents for strychnine.— 
Extract from the author’s pamphlet “Ueber Vanadin- 
schwefelsaure.” 8vo. St. Petersburg, 1883. 
Woodman and Tidy object strongly to the bichromate 
test, preferring finely-powdered peroxide of lead or man- 
ganese, the order of colors being blue, purple, violet, red, 
and finally no color. 
The intensely bitter taste of strychnine must not 
be forgotten; one grain of the pure alkaloid to the 
gallon can thus be detected. The salts are not so 
bitter. 
Failure to Detect Strychnine after Death: The 
longest period in which analysis has furnished positive 
evidence of the presence of strychnine in the exhumed 
human body is forty-three days after death. {Ann. 
d’Hyg., April, 1881, 359.) Woodman and Tidy hold 
that if the fatal dose be a minimum one, and the period 
between the taking of the poison and death be consider- 
able, it is just probable that complete elimination of the 
poison may take place, and render its discovery impossi- 
ble. The poison may often be inferred from the bitter 
taste of the obtained product when chemical tests fail to 164 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
show its presence. (Wormley.) Woodman and Tidy 
hold that strychnine does not decompose in presence of 
organic matter. 
Detection of Strychnine in the Tissues: In 
some cases it is advisable to set about testing for strych- 
nine at once without adopting the plan of systematic 
analysis given in previous pages of this work. Dragen- 
dorff, whose method is given in full by Wormley, has 
claimed to be able to detect strychnine, even if the body 
has been buried four months. Various Italian observers 
have, however, objected strongly to his method on the 
ground that the use of sulphuric acid gives rise to alka- 
loidal substances due to the decomposing action of the 
acid on organic mixtures. The method of Rodgers and 
Girdwood is as follows: The contents of the stomach, 
and the latter itself cut into small pieces, are to be di- 
gested in water acidulated with hydrochloric acid over a 
water-bath for two hours, then strained through muslin, 
filtered and evaporated to dryness over a water-bath. 
The residue is to be digested in alcohol acidulated with 
hydrochloric acid, filtered and again evaporated to dry- 
ness. Again treat with distilled water and filter into a 
long wide tube. To this first add excess of ammonia 
and afterward shake up with half an ounce of chloro- 
form. The chloroform having subsided, draw it off with 
a pipette, and evaporate it to dryness in a small evapo 
rating basin; afterward moisten the residue with concen- 
trated sulphuric acid, and allow the mixture to remain in 
a water-bath for half an hour. Add to this some distilled 
water, pouring the solution into a test tube, and thor- 
oughly rinsing out the basin with hot distilled water. 
When cold, add ammonia in excess, and shake the solu 
tion up with three drachms of chloroform. It may be 
necessary to repeat the charring with the sulphuric acid. 
Evaporate a few drops of the chloroform solution in a GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
165 
white porcelain dish, and test with sulphuric acid and 
peroxide of manganese in the manner already described.* 
If the particles of chloroform do not readily aggregate, 
the tube must be placed for a few minutes in hot water, 
and if this does not succeed, the mixture should then be 
diluted with a large bulk of water. 'When the liver, 
spleen, kidneys or other tissues are the subject of analy- 
sis, they should first of all be reduced to a pulp by rub- 
bing them well up in a mortar and afterward digested 
for several hours with acidulated water. The solution 
should then be boiled and when cold strained through 
muslin and evaporated over a water-bath, the same pro- 
cess being then adopted as with the contents of the 
stomach. To obtain strychnine from urine, set it aside 
for a few days until it decomposes and becomes alkaline; 
filter, shake up with chloroform and purify the alkaloid 
as already described. If blood is being examined, dilute 
it with equal bulk of water, acidulate with acetic acid 
and boil for a short time. Filter and evaporate the fil- 
trate nearly to dryness. Treat the residue with alcohol 
and proceed as before. 
Symptoms, Dose, Etc.: The usual time for symp- 
toms to begin is in from ten to twenty minutes, but they 
may begin immediately or be delayed for an hour, ac- 
cording to the form in which the poison is taken, and 
the manner of its administration. Death usually takes 
place within two hours from the time the poison was 
taken. If a person lives over five or six hours the prog- 
nosis is hopeful. A fatal case is recorded from one-quar- 
ter of a grain; recovery has taken place from forty grains. 
Occasionally strychnine acts as a cumulative poison. I 
have known quinine to act in the same way. 
Preparations: Strychnine mixed with coloring 
*Add to the strychnine a drop of sulphuric acid, mixing well with a glass 
rod, then cautiously stir in a little of the powdered peroxide and the colors 
will be seen. 166 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
matters is used in vermin-killers. The chief medicinal 
preparation is the sulphate, which responds to the tests 
for strychnine, and may be used for the same purposes 
and in the same doses. 
Seventy-six cases of strychnine poisoning: Forty 
resulted fatally, thirty-five recovered, one not stated. In 
those that recovered, the following treatment was adopted: 
In one case chloroform was given for three hours, then 
emetics; in one case albumen only was given; in one 
case one and a half drachms of chloral hydrate were in- 
jected subcutaneously; in one case ten grains of acetate 
of morphine were given; in two cases tincture of opium 
was given, in one of them half an ounce of it; in two 
cases emetics and chloroform; in two cases emetics only; 
in one case emetics and stomach pump after one and a 
half hours had elapsed; in one case chloroform and tinct- 
ure of aconite were given; in one case (when there was 
coma) electricity; in two cases stomach pump and chloro- 
form; in one case chloroform for one and a half hours; 
in one case drop doses of nicotine hourly in whisky 
punch; in one case • chloroform for seven hours; in one 
case coniurn and camphor; in one case chloral hydrate 
and emetics; in one case chloroform and one and one- 
sixth grains of atropine injected; in one case emetics, 
cannabis indica and chloric ether; in one case chloro- 
form for four and a half hours; in one case ten drachms 
of dried tobacco leaves in an infusion; in one case stom- 
ach pump and friction over spine with hot turpentine. Chapter III— COKROSIVE ACIDS, CAUSTIC AL- 
KALIES, VEGETABLE ACIDS. 
Corrosive Acids (Sulphuric, Nitric, Hydrochloric): 
Symptoms .—Immediate violent burning pain in mouth, 
oesophagus, stomach. Retching and vomiting of dark- 
colored liquid, with shreds of mucus and portions of 
mucous membrane of oesophagus or stomach. Stains on 
lips and mouth: Nitric acid, yellow stain; sulphuric, 
brown (white at first); hydrochloric, at first white, then 
discolored. Bowels confined. Urine scanty. Great ex- 
haustion. Anxiety. Death with intellectual faculties 
clear. 
Tests.—See Inorganic. 
Statistics.—Of thirty-seven cases, recovery in thir- 
teen; twenty five of the thirty-seven due to sulphuric 
acid, and recovery in nine of these. 
Post-Mortem Appearances.—Mucous coating of mouth, 
fauces, oesophagus easily detached; stomach and intes- 
tines coiToded or perforated. [Sulphuric acid blackens 
tissues; nitric acid makes mucous membranes yellow, 
blood black, bile green.] 
Fatal Doses.—Sulphuric acid, one drachm; nitric acid, 
two drachms; hydrochloric, four drachms. 
Time of Death.—Sulphuric, sixteen to twenty-four 
hours; nitric, twenty-four hours; hydrochloric, eighteen 
hours. 
Treatment.—Indication, promptness; calcined mag- 
nesia or bicarbonate of sodium in milk at short intervals 
(magnesia, chalk, soap-suds, plaster, lime beaten up in 
water if bicarbonate not at hand); next bland liquids for 
some time, then treat gastro-enteritis. Give oily enemata. 
Caustic Alkalies: Potassium Hydrate, Sodium Hy- 
drate, Ammonia, (Soda Lye, etc.): 
167 168 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
Symptoms.—Acrid burning taste. Often cough, hoarse- 
ness, dyspnoea; vomiting of altered mucus and blood. 
Surface of the body cold and moist; great pain in abdo- 
men, with diarrhoea. 
Tests.—See Inorganic. 
Statistics.—Cases of poisoning by caustic potash and 
caustic soda not so common as by ammonia. In twenty- 
two cases of the latter, recovery took place in nine. 
Post-Mortem Appearances.—Coats of stomach and in 
testines stained dark. 
Fatal Doses.—Caustic potash, half an ounce; am- 
monia, half an ounce of the strong: (two drachms has 
proved fatal). 
Time op Death.—Death may be rapid. From am- 
monia, in four minutes up to several months. 
Treatment.—No pump. Neutralize with dilute vine- 
gar or lemon juice. Oranges, olive oil, milk. Poisoning 
from inhaling ammonia should be treated by inhalations 
of acetic or hydrochloric (dilute) acid. 
Vegetable Acids, Oxalic, Carbolic: 
OXALIC ACID. 
Symptoms.—Hot burning on swallowing. Severe burn- 
ing at stomach. Immediate vomiting of black matters. 
Constriction, suffocation in throat. Lividity. Pain and 
prostration. Feeble pulse, cold clammy perspiration. 
Convulsions, death. 
Tests.—See Organic. 
Statistics.—In twenty-seven cases, recovery in thir- 
teen. Death took place very rapidly in five cases, as 
follows: Instantaneously, in three minutes, in ten min- 
utes, in twenty minutes, in twenty-five minutes. 
Post-Mortem Appearances.—Mucous membrane of 
fauces, oesophagus, stomach: white, soft, brittle; general 
softening and blanching of mucous membranes notice- 
able. GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
169 
Fatal Dose.—Four drachms. 
Time of Death.—Death very rapid; three minutes to 
eight hours. 
Treatment.—Do not give alkaline carbonates. Do 
not use stomach pump. The proper antidote is lime. 
Give abundance of chalk or magnesia in very small 
quantities of milk, and after the acid is thus neutralized, 
give emetics if no vomiting. Do not give warm water to 
induce vomiting. (Woodman and Tidy.) Treat collapse 
with stimulants. If no lime is at hand “ scrape the ceil- 
ings.” 
CARBOLIC ACID. 
(Really not an acid, but, for convenience, is so classi- 
fied.) 
Symptoms.—-Whiteness of mouth, etc. Coma. Ster- 
torous breathing. Contracted pupils. Urine dark. 
Fatal Dose.—One ounce. [See Statistics.] 
Time of Death.—Few minutes to ten hours. Usually 
an hour or two. 
Remarks.—Differentiation from opium by odor and 
white color of tissues. Heat develops the odor. 
Post-Mortem Appearances.—Mucous membranes white, 
movable. Odor of the acid everywhere, even in brain. 
Treatment.- Emetics, mustard and water or sulphate 
of zinc. Raw eggs ad libitum. Collapse treated by in- 
jection of stimulants. Give also magnesia suspended in 
a mixture of olive and castor oils, lime-water and sugar. 
Ether subcutaneously. Soluble sulphates internally. 
[See, however, Statistics.] 
Statistics, etc.: Carbolic acid is a modern poison, 
and cases of poisoning from it are now frequent, and re- 
covery rare. In twenty-one cases quoted by Woodman 
and Tidy death took place in nineteen, recovery in one, 
one doubtful. Barron (British Medical Journal, 1883) 
reports a case successfully treated as follows: A girl 170 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
drank a fluidounce of Calvert’s No. 5 (full strength); 
cautious use of the stomach pump (washing out stomach 
five or six times with warm water, till fluid returning had 
no odor of the acid) was first made; a thick solution of 
magnesia was next thrown in and left in the stomach. 
Hot water and hot plates were applied. Enemata of beef 
tea, beaten up eggs and milk were given, two tablespoon- 
fuls every four hours. Nothing given by the mouth ex- 
cept a little ice, ice water or iced milk, just enough to 
wet the mouth. For ten days the enemata were kept up, 
and applications of cold water to the charred mouth 
made wfith camel’s-hair brush. From the tenth to the 
fifteenth day cautious drinking of beef tea, milk and 
eggs, etc., and two enemata per day. On the twenty- 
fifth day, fed in the usual way. 
From experiments on animals the theory was started 
that soluble sulphates were the proper antidote. The 
following case, reported by Reid, in British Medical 
Journal, tends to show that the use of sulphates is not 
always successful where human beings are concerned: A 
woman drank four fluidounces of carbolic acid. No pump 
used, but four drachms sulphate of sodium in five fluid- 
ounces of water injected into stomach by catheter. Two 
hours later three-quarters of an ounce of salt in five 
ounces of water. Four hours later three-quarters of an 
ounce of sulphate of sodium in five ounces of wrater were 
injected into the stomach. Ether also was injected at 
the end of the first, third and fifth hour. The patient 
died in forty minutes after last injection of sodium sulphate. 
Costine reports a case where one ounce and a half of 
the poison was taken internally. No knowledge of the 
character of the poison being had, apomorphine was used 
(one-eighth of a grain subcutaneously). In fifteen min- 
utes five ounces of dark liquid, smelling of carbolic acid, 
was expelled with a gush from the stomach. Olive oil GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
171 
was then injected into the stomach, and recovery followed. 
The faeces and urine were both darkened. 
As to the dose: 'Most authorities put the fatal dose at 
one drachm, and think recovery after half an ounce to be 
exceptional. Death has followed the taking of a table- 
spoonful, and a teaspoonful has killed an infant. Reich- 
ert, however, mentions a case where recovery took place 
after an injection of 145 grains. 
As to the urine: The darkening of the urine is re- 
garded as a sign that too much of the acid is being used 
or has been taken. Fussinger has shown that the dark 
color is due to the presence of two bodies called hydro- 
quinon and pyrocatechin respectively; there is also an 
abundance of sulpho-carbolates (phenyl-sulphates). 
Renal hemorrhage has followed the use of the Lister 
spray in ovariotomy. 
Carbolic acid is a poison also when used externally. 
Cases of extreme prostration following the use of carbolic 
injections after coitus have been noticed. A child of four 
and a half years died in three and one-half hours from 
application of carbolic acid to a wound. A woman 
operated on by Yerneuil showed symptoms of poisoning 
from two injections of carbolic acid solution into the part 
operated on (rectum), and did not entirely recover until 
the tenth day after. She absorbed about fifteen grains 
of the acid. Weiss concludes that cases of poisoning 
from external use of carbolic acid are most common fol- 
lowing uterine, vaginal and vesical injections or the 
washing of the interior of huge abcesses. Lemaire holds 
that the vapor of carbolic acid is comparatively harmless. 
Duret, however, exposed for one and a half hours, during 
an operation, to the vapors of the acid, was taken sud- 
denly with intense cephalalgia, with a sensation of tight- 
ness all over the head, and lack of appetite, rendering 
further work for that day impossible. 172 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
"Weiss describes three forms of poisoning by carbolic 
acid: In the first there is a tendency to collapse or to 
complete coma, very marked decrease in temperature, 
sometimes convulsions; lastly, vomiting and melanuria. 
The second form presents symptoms like those shown by 
Duret. The third form has been described by Volkmann 
and Sonnenburg as consequent upon too long continued 
use of the acid. The symptoms are fever, nausea, cepha- 
lalgia, tendency to adynamia, melanuria. Chapter IV.— SIMPLE IRRITANTS — SALTS OF 
METALS, ALOES, COLOCYNTH, ANIMAL 
AND GASEOUS IRRITANTS. 
Simple Irritants: Salts of the alkali metals, salts 
of the heavy metals, vegetable irritants (aloes, colocynth, 
etc.), animal irritants (fish, meat, etc.), gaseous irritants 
(chlorine, etc.). 
IRRITANT POISONING. 
General Symptoms.—Symptoms of irritant poisoning 
are: Pains in stomach and bowels, fainting and nausea, 
purging with straining, bloody evacuations, feeble irreg- 
ular pulse and cold skin. Death from collapse, convul- 
sions or severe inflammation. 
General Treatment.—Emetics, stomach pump, de- 
mulcent drinks. [There are no antidotes to nitre, cream 
of tartar, or liver of sulphur; zinc sulphate and chloride 
should be treated as above and tannin given (tea, oak 
bark or Peruvian bark decoction); nitrate of silver, give 
common salt and emetics; salts of tin, give magnesia and 
milk; salts of iron, magnesia and milk ] 
BICHROMATE OF POTASSIUM. 
This substance is a powerful irritant poison. In acute 
poisoning we find the usual symptoms abdominal pains, 
vomiting, purging, cramps in the legs, feebleness of 
pulse, coldness of surface of body, clammy perspiration, 
soreness of mouth and throat, excessive thirst. Stools of 
peculiar clay color; matters vomited are yellowish. The 
remote effects are shown as follows: Syncope and gid- 
diness, specks before the eyes, dilatation of the pupils, 
yellowness of the conjunctiva, urine either suppressed 
or in small quantity and purulent, stupor, hurried or 
difficult respiration, loss of power in legs. The perios- 
teum generally is swollen and painful. The action of the 
poison is specially marked on mucous membranes. 
173 174 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
Chronic Poisoning.—Bitter nauseous taste in mouth, 
great irritation of nasal mucous membrane, incessant 
sneezing, increased secretion of tears, sometimes conjunc- 
tivitis. Later, ulceration and even destruction of septum 
nasi. Chronic sores on hands, shoulders, feet. 
Post-Mortem Appearances.—Mucous membrane of 
the stomach inflamed or destroyed, or marked with 
patches of dark red discoloration, the blood being black and 
very thin. [No well-marked appearances may be ob- 
served.] 
Fatal Dose.—Two drachms has caused death. Re- 
covery from two ounces has taken place. 
Time of Death.—Few hours. 
Treatment.—Emetics, if required, and free use of car- 
bonate of magnesium or calcium in milk. In chronic 
poisoning sponging the throat with nitrate of silver solu- 
tion, and mercuric chloride internally are recommended. 
In seven cases of poisoning by this substance, recovery 
took place in three instances. 
VEGETABLE IRRITANTS. 
Aloes, colocynth, jalup, gamboge, scammonium, 
elaterium, croton tiglium, etc. 
Symptoms.—Irritation of intestinal canal, severe pain, 
vomiting, diarrhoea, tenesmus, collapse, cold sweats, 
(sometimes) convulsions. 
Treatment.—Emetics, bland liquids. If copious vom- 
iting, give milk. If poison is in intestines, give castor 
oil. Combat inflammatory symptoms; give emollient 
enemata; apply fomentations to abdomen. 
ANIMAL IRRITANTS. 
Poisonous fish. Poisonous meat, (Ptomaines). 
Treatment.—Emetics, purgatives, diluents, stimulants, 
tonics. 
Remarks.—Poisoning by decayed meat—sausages, 
etc.—often results fatally. Of 155 cases, 84 were mor- GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
175 
tal; of 400 other cases, 150 resulted fatally. The symp- 
toms are redness of buccal mucous membrane, vomiting, 
diarrhoea, alternated with constipation, pain on abdominal 
palpation and often colic, oedema and hyperesthesia. 
Pulse infrequent, feeble. Voice hoarse; often aphonia 
and sometimes coughing. Vertigo, headache, buzzing in 
the ears, diplopia and pupillary dilatation. Death from 
four to eight days. Recovery slow. In poisoning by 
shell fish, we may note gastric, exanthematous and (rarely) 
convulsive and paralytic symptoms, resembling alka- 
loids. 
Ptomaines.—These substances, first noticed by Gau- 
tier,* and afterward given prominence by Selmi, are the 
results of putrefaction of dead bodies. It is probable 
that poisoning from meat is due to the development of 
these or kindred substances. The gastro-intestinal irri- 
tation and profound toxic symptoms are probably, sub- 
stantially, processes of alkaloidal poisoning. (Leffman.) 
IRRITANT GASES. 
Chlorine, sulphurous acid gas, nitrous acid gas, hydro- 
chloric acid gas, ammonia gas. 
Chlorine.—Excessive irritation in air passages, cough, 
difficulty of breathing, inflammation. 
Nitrous Acid.—Fumes given off by nitric acid under 
various circumstances have proved fatal, producing in- 
flammation of lungs and air passages. 
Ammonia.—Inflammation of larynx, bronchitis, pneu- 
monia. 
Hydrochloric Acid.—Gas given off in manufacture of 
washing soda. 
General Treatment. —Instant removal to fresh air. 
* So claimed. Both Gautier and Selmi announced the discovery at about 
the same time. Chapter Y. — SPECIFIC IRRITANTS — IODINE, 
PHOSPHORUS, MERCURY, ANTIMONY, 
LEAD, COPPER, BARIUM, CAN- 
THARIDES. 
SPECIFIC IRRITANTS. 
These produce local inflammation like the simple irri- 
tants, but, in addition, show certain specific signs of their 
action peculiar and pointing to the poison. 
Iodine: The treatment is to encourage vomiting, to 
give large amounts of arrowroot, starch enemata, flour 
and water. A recent case was treated successfully with 
apomorphine, diluents, starch and bicarbonate of sodium. 
Phosphorus: The symptoms are those of irritant 
poisoning in general; the vomited matters are luminous 
in the dark; the breath smells of garlic; there is prostra- 
tion, diarrhoea, and the stools are bloody. These may 
subside, and on the third to fifth day secondary symp- 
toms may appear. Jaundiced skin, extravasations below 
skin, enlargement liver, retention and suppression of the 
urine—what little is passed is albuminous and contains 
bile—acute delirium with convulsions, coma and death. 
Post Mortem Appearances.—Among others, fatty de- 
generation of the liver, also of kidneys, heart, muscles. 
Fatal Dose.—Averages one grain. 
Time of Death.—Usually third to seventh day. 
Treatment.—Free vomiting (sulphate of copper as 
emetic), magnesia in mucilaginous drinks; turpentine* 
has been recommended. 
Detection.—Mitscherlich’s process is to put matters 
into retort, acidulate with sulphuric acid, conduct stem 
into tall glass vessel kept cool with stream of water. Dis- 
* Hager calls attention to the fact that the crude oil alone can be regarded 
as the antidote. 
176 GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
177 
till in the dark, and, as vapors condense in tall glass ves- 
sel, a flash of light is seen. 
Arsenic: Has already been considered. 
Antimony: The most important poisonous com- 
pound is tartar emetic. The symptoms of poisoning by 
tartar emetic are metallic taste, nausea and violent vom- 
itingr, burning heat and pain in the stomach, purging, 
thirst, cramps, cold sweat, great debility, dizziness, in- 
sensibility, difficult respiration, utter prostration, violent 
spasms. 
Fatal Dose.—About a drachm—three-quarters of a 
grain has killed a child, two grains an adult—large doses 
may be vomited up. 
Time of Death.—In an adult, shortest, seven hours; 
has been delayed for one, two and four days, and even for 
two or more weeks. 
Treatment.—If vomiting is not present it must be in- 
duced by draughts of warm water or by hot milk or by 
tickling the throat; if these fail, the stomach pump must 
be used without delay. Liquids containing tannin—as 
tea, nutgalls, or decoction of oak bark—are the proper 
antidotes.* When the stomach is rid of the poison, 
strong coffee may be given and opium to allay the vomiting. 
Corrosive Sublimate: The symptoms of poisoning 
by this agent are: Acrid metallic taste, burning heat 
throat and stomach, nausea and pain in the stomach with 
vomiting often of blood and stringy mucus, diarrhoea 
with bloody stools, swelling of abdomen, lips and tongue 
white and shriveled, dyspnoea, pulse small, wiry, fre- 
quent, scantiness or entire suppression of mine; death 
from collapse, coma or convulsions. The symptoms set 
in very soon. 
Post-Mortem Appearances.—Stomach often covered 
with slate-colored precipitate of finely-divided mercury; 
* It has been denied that these substances serve to neutralize the poison GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
178 
if life prolonged a few days, rectum and lower bowels in- 
tensely congested. 
Fatal Dose.—Five grains; death has followed the tak- 
ing of three grains. 
Time oe Death.—Three to six days; has happened in 
half an hour and been delayed to sixteen days. 
Treatment.—Give immediately white of egg in milk 
or wheat flour in milk. Encourage vomiting by giving 
copious draughts of albuminous drinks (white of egg and 
water). White of egg in milk should be given two or 
three times daily for some few weeks. 
Compounds of Lead: The acetate and sub-acetate 
have occasioned death from acute poisoning. The symp - 
toms are dryness, metallic taste, thirst, colic relieved by 
pressure, invariably constipation from paralysis of the in- 
testinal muscular coat, scanty red urine; later, cramps, 
cold sweats, paralysis lower extremities, convulsions, 
spasms. Death during colic stage almost unknown. 
Fatal Dose of the acetate (sugar of lead) cannot be 
fixed; 480 grains have not proved fatal. The sub-acetate 
is more poisonous and deaths in thirty-six hours and 
seventy-two hours respectively have occurred from its 
administration, the dose not being known. 
Chronic Lead Poisoning is very common; lead is 
a cumulative poison and may be received into the sys- 
tem by the stomach, lungs or skin. The symptoms of 
chronic poisoning are blue line around the gums (sul- 
phide of lead in minute capillaries), emaciation and 
pallor, obstinate constipation, colic, paralysis (especially 
of extensors of hand and forearm). 
Treatment oe Acute Poisoning.—Vomiting or stomach 
pump, large draughts of milk containing white of egg, 
sulphate of magnesium in dilute sulphuric acid. Bou- 
chardat recommends hydrated sesquisulphide of iron. 
Compounds of Copper: The arsenite only will be 
considered. GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
179 
Symptoms.—Pain, vomiting of blue or green matters, 
diarrhoea, jaundice. 
Treatment.—Encourage vomiting with warm water, 
give albumen, followed by milk. 
Compounds of Barium: The chloride, nitrate and 
acetate are soluble and poisonous. Irritant symptoms, 
cramps and convulsions, and sometimes loss of voice, have 
been noticed. The fatal dose may be put at half an 
ounce (one drachm of chloride has killed), and the time 
of death at two hours. The treatment is free use of 
emetics and administration of soluble sulphates, as those 
of sodium or magnesium. 
Animal Irritants: Cantharides gives rise to irri- 
tant symptoms, but also affects the genito-urinary system, 
causing strangury, with passage at most of a few drops 
of bloody mine, and severe priapism. The fatal dose of 
powder is twenty-four grains, of the tincture one ounce. 
Time of Death.—Twenty-four hours to four or even 
seventeen days. Seeming convalescence not always to 
be trusted. This poison has proved fatal when used ex- 
ternally. 
Treatment.—Promote vomiting by emetics and thick 
warm liquids, as linseed tea, gum arabic and water, gruel. 
Emetics, warm baths, camphor and opium were used 
successfully in the case of a number of soldiers who 
drank the tincture. 
Detection.—Shining particles may be found in the 
large intestines or in vomit; any particles found must be 
acted on with ether or chloroform, the solvent poured off, 
evaporated down, and the extract thus obtained applied 
to the ear of a rabbit to see whether it is capable of pro- 
ducing a blister. (Woodman and Tidy.) In case of 
tincture being given, evaporate contents of stomach and 
act on it with alcohol acidulated with acetic acid, then 
evaporate and shake up with chloroform as before, Chapter VI.—NEUROTICS—OPIUM, CHLOROFORM, 
ETHER, ALCOHOL, NITROBENZOLE, ANI- 
LINE, PICROTOXIN, CAMPHOR, 
FUNGI. 
Neurotics: Among these we find narcotics, ances- 
thetics, inebriants, delirants, convulsants, paralysants, 
syncopants, depressants, asphyxiants, abortives, which 
will be considered in the order given in Tanner. 
Narcotics: Opium is the type and has been already 
considered. 
Anaesthetics: Chloroform, ether, chloral, etc. The 
treatment in cases of poisoning by ether and chloroform 
is to put the patient where he may have a current of 
fresh air, apply cold affusions, use artificial respiration, 
and galvanism to keep up the action of the diaphragm. 
Chloral was for some time not classified among poisons; 
it is, however, a very treacherous one. Recovery has 
been noted from a mixture of 270 grains of chloral hy- 
drate and 180 of potassium bromide; on the other hand, 
thirty grains of chloral are said to have caused death. 
Time of death varies from one hour to three days. The 
idea that chloral is converted into chloroform in the 
blood is not now believed. The treatment in cases of 
poisoning by this substance are emetics, stomach pump, 
free administration of tea, coffee or weak rum, to restore 
respiration; in desperate cases, transfusion of blood; use 
of electricity is recommended to arouse the patient. 
Chloroform and ether may be taken internally. Oliver 
reports a case where three ounces of chloroform were 
taken. The treatment was as follows: Artificial respira- 
tion was employed, one pole of induction coil being ap- 
plied over the heart and the other to the nape of the 
neck. Enemata of beef tea with brandy were given, and 
subcutaneous injections of ether over the cardiac area. 
180 GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
181 
In three hours there was no sensibility to the skin; five 
drops of amyl nitrite were given by inhalation and respi- 
ration began to improve. There was no vomiting; the 
pupils were contracted when the anaesthesia was most 
profound, but dilated when respiration almost ceased. 
IliebriantS: Among these we classify alcohol, nitro- 
benzole and aniline, cocculus indicus, camphor, mush- 
rooms, etc. Alcohol: Acute poisoning by this agent is 
often noticed in cases where ambitions persons are desir- 
ous of imitating the alleged example of Alexander the 
Great. Twenty-four ounces of whisky have proved fatal 
in two hours; half a pint of gin has proved fatal to an 
adult; two wineglassfuls of brandy have killed a boy, 
seven years old, in thirty hours; two bottles of port 
(eleven ounces of alcohol) proved fatal to a man in less 
than two hours. Sixteen ounces of whisky have pro- 
duced deep stupor, without other premonitory symptoms, 
then sudden insensibility and death from convulsions. 
(The latter are by no means a necessary attendant on al- 
cohol poisoning.) Recovery has been noted after a quart 
of gin and a quart of whisky in adults and after three 
ounces of rum in a child five years old. Treatment: The 
one great indication in acute poisoning by alcohol is to 
get rid of the poison, and the stomach pump is better 
than any emetic. If the bladder is distended use the 
catheter. Cold affusion should be applied to the head. 
Fresh air is necessary. If the patient be asphyxiated, 
galvanism may be used. If the stupor be intense, dilute 
liquor ammonise or ammonium carbonate may be given 
internally. If there is thirst, give strong coffee. Lastly, 
warmth must be promoted. 
Nitrobenzole and Aniline: Nitrobenzole maybe used 
as a substitute for essential oil of almonds, and as such is 
called “essence of mirbane.” Workmen engaged in its 
manufacture may show symptoms of chronic poisoning; 182 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
it is used largely for making aniline, and is made from 
the rectified products of coal tar and nitric acid. In 
twenty-three cases of acute poisoning noted by Grand - 
homme the symptoms appeared in from fifteen minutes 
to an hour; in two cases, immediately. General malaise, 
weakness, headache, livid countenance, blue tint to the 
skin (particularly of the face and extremities), hands and 
feet cold and icy, nails of a dull blue tint, are the symp- 
toms most often noted. Death from coma. The patients 
have a characteristic odor of essential oil of bitter al- 
monds. The cyanosis and odor are. most important 
points. In forty-four cases noted, death took place in 
fourteen. The fatal dose was known in five cases and 
varied fsom a few drops to a teaspoonful. Fatal cases 
have been known where the nitrobenzole was sucked into 
the mouth and immediately spit out. A case is reported 
where a child died in five hours from seventy-five grains 
of it. Treatment: The stomach pump should be used 
at once, and if used the chances for recovery are good, 
as the poison is insoluble and but slowly absorbed. Cold 
affusion and ammonia are useful. Stimulants may cau- 
tiously be given, and the treatment persevered in. Nitro- 
benzole is said to be converted into aniline in the body. 
Aniline swallowed or inhaled produces the blue or purple 
discoloration of the body, especially of the lips and nails. 
Aniline dyes have been found of late to produce injurious 
effects; they are not so harmless as heretofore supposed. 
Poisoning from aniline administered internally has been 
treated successfully by administration of emetics, ether 
subcutaneously, and sinapisms. Leloir has had experi- 
ence with cases of poisoning from external use of ani- 
line. Compresses, wet with a solution containing five 
grammes of aniline hydrochlorate, and applied to parts 
of the skin affected with psoriasis, brought about 
nausea, icy coldness, cyanosis, cramps, dyspnoea, somno- GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
183 
lence. The urine contained fuchsine. Workmen in es- 
tablishments where aniline is manufactured are subject 
to epileptiform convulsions. Lailler has observed in 
two cases of psoriasis that applications of the hydro- 
chlorate caused cephalalgia, agitation, dyspnoea, cyanosis, 
icy coldness, dark-red urine; the symptoms passed off 
rapidly. 
CocculllS Indicus: Contains in its kernel a principle 
called picrotoxine. Symptoms: Vomiting, purging, 
stupor, loss of voluntary power with a consciousness of 
passing events. In some cases convulsions and an erup- 
tion like that of scarlatina. Picrotoxine is used sometimes 
as a substitute for hops. It may be detected in beer by shak- 
ing forty ounces of beer with 400 grains of salt and fil- 
tering. The filtrate may then be exhausted with ether, 
evaporated, the residue treated with alcohol and water, 
to which a drop of sulphuric acid has been added; warm, 
let cool, filter, shake up with ether, let evaporate and test 
residue, which, with cold sulphuric acid, gives no color, 
but when the acid mixture is warmed the orange tint is 
very distinct. 
Camphor: The symptoms are giddiness with imper- 
fect sight, cramps, numbness of extremities, apparent in- 
toxication, difficulty of breathing, thirst, and sometimes 
convulsions. Treatment: Emetics and castor oil. Re- 
covery usual. Thirty grains have killed a child one and 
a half years old, and 360 grains have been taken in a day 
without bad results. 
Fungi: Poisonous fungi usually grow in clusters in 
woods and in dark damp places; are usually of a bright 
color; have tough, soft, watery flesh; change to a brown, 
green or blue tint when cut and exposed to the air; juice 
often milky; odor powerful and disagreeable; taste either 
bitter, astringent, acrid or salt. This differentiates the 
common edible mushroom from poisonous ones, but there 184 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
are species of fungi not poisonous which answer to the 
above description, and some that are poisonous which do 
not answer to it. The symptoms are either irritant, nar- 
cotic or both. Treatment: Emetics, stomach pump, 
castor oil. Chapter YII. — NEUROTICS (CONTINUED) —BEL- 
LADONNA, STRAMONIUM, HYOSCYA- 
MUS, ETC. 
Delirants: Among these we find belladonna, stra- 
monium, hyoscyamus, solanum. 
Belladonna: The most constant symptoms are: 
Dryness of mouth and throat, difficulty of deglutition, 
dilatation of the pupils, impaired vision, thirst which 
nothing will allay, delirium generally of a pleasing char- 
acter, but sometimes of a furious nature, succeeded by 
drowsiness and stupor. In fatal cases, death is usually 
preceded by coldness of the extremities, a rapid and in- 
termittent pulse, deep coma, and sometimes (though 
rarely) convulsions. In atropine poisoning, the symp- 
toms begin sooner and are more severe. 
Fatal Cases.*— (a) Adult ate pie made of berries of 
belladonna at dinner; died the following morning; child 
to whom a portion of the pie had been given died the 
same day. (b) Child ate berries; death in nineteen 
hours, with a temperature of 110° two hours before 
death, (c) Boy of sixteen took a drachm of the extract; 
death in three hours and forty-five minutes. (d) Injec- 
tion of decoction of the root; death in five horns, (e) 
Belladonna plaster applied to sensitive surface. (/) 
Child of five ate a few ripe berries; death in a few hours. 
(:g) Adult and child of three ate pie made of berries, (h) 
Female; death in twenty-nine hours, (i) Child of five 
ate a quantity of berries; death in fifteen hours, (j) 
Female of twenty-seven used decoction of four scruples 
of the root as injection; death in five hours. (k) Adult 
swallowed extract of belladonna; death on seventh day. 
(l) Man of seventy-five took some of the extract; death 
* Woodman and Tidy, and Wormley. 
185 186 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
in seventeen hours, (to) Boy of sixteen took two drachms 
of extract; death in three and one half hours, (n) Fe- 
male of sixty-six took one drachm of belladonna lini- 
ment; death in sixteen hours, (o) Female of forty eight 
took the liniment; death in five hours. 
Recoveries from poisoning by belladonna are com- 
mon. (1) Child of less than three recovered from 8 to 12 
grains of the extract; (2) child of less than three, from 
five grains of the extract; (3) male adult, from fifty ber- 
ries; (4) boy of fourteen had violent delirium from eat- 
ing two berries, but recovered; (5) boy of fourteen re- 
covered from eating thirty berries; (6) male adult, from 
two drachms of the leaves taken as infusion; (7) female, 
from three drachms of extract in a liniment given by 
mistake; (8) from forty grains of the extract; (9) female 
of forty-one, from fifteen grains of the extract; (10) fe- 
male of twenty-two, from two and a half drachms of ex- 
tract of belladonna, taken by mistake for confection of 
senna. Besides these, there are many others given by 
Woodman and Tidy. 
Treatment.—Emetics, as zinc sulphate, and, when the 
patient is a little better, a good dose of castor oil and 
strong coffee. Morphine is recommended as a physiolog- 
ical antidote. Pilocarpine subcutaneously has also been 
advised. In a case reported by G. IT. Browne, the stom- 
ach pump was used first to wash out the stomach, then 
to pump in a little brandy and water. A hypodermic of one 
thirty-second of a grain of morphine was given, and the ab- 
domen, which was tympanitic, rubbed with brandy. Chlo- 
roform was used (partial anaesthesia) during the spasms. 
An enema of warm water was given. In two hours an- 
other hypodermic of morphine. Rawson, in poisoning 
by belladonna and stramonium, administers chloroform 
for about fifteen minutes until the patient is in a slum- 
ber. In a case where emetics, opium and stimulants GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
187 
failed, heavy doses of chloral restored consciousness.* In 
the case of a child of two and one-half years, which took 
an unknown amount, the treatment adopted by J. W. 
Band was milk, brandy, lime-water and a hypodermic of 
9 mg. (not quite one-sixth of a grain) of pilocarpine. 
Recovery took place on the next day. Duffin reports a 
case of a man of thirty who took belladonna in a bever- 
age of some kind shortly after a meal. The treatment, 
which was successful, consisted of emetics, stomach pump, 
bromide of potassium, subcutaneous morphine, adminis- 
tration of chloroform. A drop of this man’s urine, when 
concentrated, caused notable dilatation of normal pupil. 
Atropine: Fatal dose, internally, two grains; re- 
covery from 0.5, 0.6, 1.0 and 1.5 grains. Cases of pois 
oning from the use of atropine sulphate in collyria have 
been reported. Lutaud draws the following conclusions: 
“1. Collyria and eye-washes containing atropine may 
reach the pharynx and alimentary tract through the 
lachrymal ducts. 2. The symptoms are in general of 
short duration, and remarkable both for their intensity 
and for their rapid disappearance. 3. Collyria contain- 
ing heavy percentages of atropine should be administered 
by physicians only, and never by the patient himself. 4. 
When instillations are made, pressure should be applied 
to the internal angle of the eye in order to prevent the 
toxic fluid from reaching the pharynx.” (See, how- 
ever, Beauvais’s inferences.) Death has been noticed 
in one case: A child of four months died in con- 
vulsions on the first day of the use of a collyrium con- 
taining two centigrammes of atropine to ten grammes of 
water.f (Galezowski.) In a case of double interstitial 
keratitis in a child of four years, reported by Tanzler, 
* This case is reported by Decaisne to have been treated by “ le doctenr 
Smith”! 
f About one grain to the fluidounce. 188 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
the use of collyria developed symptoms causing treat- 
ment to be suspended for a time; on renewing the treat- 
ment, suddenly one morning the child awoke with a 
temperature of 105 (nearly), pulse 140, regular. The 
skin presented here and there large, bright red, irregular, 
indefinite spots, disappearing on pressure, and not itch- 
ing. Laryngeal mucous membrane strongly injected 
and tumefied; headache, dry cough. The next day the 
pulse and temperature were still higher, and the eruption, 
which had become paler, reappeared in the evening and 
on the next day. Discontinuance of atropine treat- 
ment led to slow recovery; some seven days afterward 
the atropine was given again, and in a few weeks the 
child had another rise in temperature, an eruption on 
the face, uneven respiration, clonic and tonic convul- 
sions, with loss of consciousness, ptosis (left side), 
difficulty in swallowing and anuria. Subcutaneous in- 
jections of pilocarpine caused these symptoms to disap- 
pear in two days. In another case where a child of eight 
years had had for two months three instillations a day 
into each eye, the first symptoms noticed were difficulty 
in speaking, confusion of ideas and of words-, the abdo- 
men, thighs and lower limbs showed a scarlatiniform 
eruption, while the neck and upper limbs were marked 
with red spots, disappearing on pressure, arranged in 
form of islets. Excessive mydriasis, dryness of the 
pharynx, violent thirst were present. The child became 
practically an idiot, but was in a continual state of ex- 
citement, constantly making aimless movements, almost 
like those of chorea,and was unable to recognize any- 
one; subcutaneous injections of pilocarpine, at first three 
of 0.02 gm. each, then two of 0.01 gm. each, were ad 
ministered. Complete recovery took place on the next 
day, intelligence being wholly restored. 
Beauvais reports a case of iritis, where the patient, an GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
189 
adult, applied atropine solution (four and one-half grains 
of the sulphate to the tiuidounce) to his eyes hourly dur- 
ing one night without pressure of the internal angle. 
When found in the morning the following symptoms 
were noticed: Delirium, complete blindness, eyes star- 
ing, conjunctivse injected with bluish vessels, heart 
tumultuous; the breathing was short, hurried, irregular, 
stertorous; the skin cold and clammy. Three centi- 
grammes (0.45 of a grain) of morphine were adminis- 
tered subcutaneously. Recovery was complete by four 
in the afternoon. 
Buffum (Diseases of the Eye, p. 46) says: “Where 
care is not used in its application, the symptoms of atro- 
pine poisoning may occur. These are usually, first dry- 
ness of the throat, then flushing of the face, headache, 
palpitation of the heart, acute mania, delirium, retention 
of urine, urging to urinate, nausea, and prostration. On 
the occasion of any of these symptoms, the use of the atro- 
pine should be stopped and draughts of black coffee ad- 
ministered until vomiting takes place, or morphia and 
brandy may be given if the prostration is great. If the 
atropine is dropped into the eye, near the outer panthus, 
and the head held to that side for a few moments, or 
pressure made over the lachrymal sac, the poisonous 
effects are not likely to prove troublesome.” 
Beauvais (Annales d’Hygiene, Jan., 1881) quotes nearly 
a dozen cases of poisoning by application of atropine so- 
lutions to the eye, and is inclined to think that, in some 
cases at least, absorption of the poison by the conjunc- 
tiva is responsible for the symptoms. 
Fatal Cases of Atropine Poisoning:* (a) Female 
of forty-three took three grains; death in fifteen hours. 
(6) Physician took one-twelfth of a grain; death in thirty 
hours, (c) One-thirtieth of a grain subcutaneously; 
* Woodman and Tidy, and Wormley. 190 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
death in live minutes, (d) Ointment of 15 parts atropine 
sulphate to 700 parts of lard applied to a blister on a 
man’s neck; death in two hours, (e) Two grains of atro- 
pine taken before going to bed by male adult; death 
some time in the night. (/) Child of four months, 
collyrium one grain atropine to the fluidounce; death on 
the first day. (Galezowski.) 
Stramonium: Treatment same as for belladonna. 
Hyoscyamus: Symptoms are dilated pupils, un- 
manageble delirium, generally of great violence, alter- 
nating with or ending in coma. Treatment same as for 
belladonna. A woman took eleven drachms of the tinc- 
ture; tincture of galls, milk and effervescent drinks were 
administered and recovery took place. A case of poison- 
ing by hyoscyamine is reported by Gibbons: In the case 
of a woman of seventy-five with paralysis agitans, one- 
eighth of a grain of hyoscyamine in form of pill, together 
with two grains of quinquinia, was administered. In six 
hours the woman was found on the edge of her bed cold, 
almost unconscious, incapable of articulating any words 
distinctly, and almost entirely deprived of muscular 
power. Hot fomentations, a small amount of wine, with 
ten drops spirit of camphor and one-twelfth grain mor- 
phine sulphate, were administered, and she slept well the 
rest of the night. Twenty-four hours afterward the 
symptoms reappeared with greater intensity; everything 
around her seemed red in color. By the next morning 
after that all symptoms of poisoning had left her. 
Duboisine: This alkaloid is said, by Ladenburg, to 
be identical with hyoscyamine. Berner (Schmidt’s 
Jahrbucher, Band 189, No. 1) has observed a case of 
poisoning following the instillation of a solution of 
duboisine, 1 in 100, into the right eye. The symp- 
toms came on in ten minutes, and were dilatation of the 
pupil, accommodation impossible, photopsy, etc. Most GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
191 
of the symptoms disappeared in four hours. Another 
case reported by J. H. Buffum was that of an elderly 
woman who, in half an hour after the instillation of a 
four-grain to the ounce solution, became entirely uncon- 
scious and showed symptoms of collapse; relieved in six 
hours by hypodermic injections of brandy. In another 
case reported by the same physician, an adult man suf- 
fered partial loss of consciousness, and showed symptoms 
of approaching collapse; brandy was successfully used in 
this case as before. Hyoscine is chiefly used in form of 
the hydrobromate. Toxic symptoms are said to follow 
the use, in ophthalmological practice, of solutions stronger 
than 1 in 200. Internally 1-40 of a grain is deemed the 
strongest medicinal dose, or 1-250 to 1-320 subcuta- 
neously. 
Tests for Atropine: The physiological tests are of 
greatest importance, and the action of the residue ob- 
tained from vomit or from the tissues or urine when 
dropped into the eye or injected under the skin of a rab- 
bit should always be noticed. Merely dropping the mine 
of the patient into the eye of a rabbit suffices in some 
cases to cause dilatation of the pupil at once. 
In order to find the poisonous principles of most plants, 
other than opium or nux vomica, Woodman and Tidy rec- 
ommend the following method: Place the contents of 
the stomach and intestines in a clean wide-mouthed bot- 
tle, and having rendered them acid with a few drops of 
acetic or hydrochloric acid, treat them with a consider- 
able quantity of alcohol and put them aside for some 
hours in a warm place, occasionally giving the bottle a 
shake. Filter the materials through thick blotting paper 
and treat the filtrate with excess of sub-acetate of lead 
(Goulard’s extract) and filter off the precipitate formed. 
Sulphuretted hydrogen must now be passed through the 
clear filtrate until the liquid shows by its action on lead 192 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
paper that complete saturation has been effected. In this 
way any excess of lead added will be thrown down and 
may be filtered off. Evaporate the clear filtrate to dry- 
ness and dissolve the residue in a few drops of water 
acidulated with acetic acid. It may be necessary to filter 
this. Supersaturate this alcoholic extract with bicarbo- 
nate of potash, and extract from this the alkaloid, either 
by ether or chloroform, in the manner already indicated. 
Tasting the residue from time to time should never 
be neglected. 
After obtaining the alkaloid, tests for atropine may be 
made as follows: 
1. KHO or NaHO give with strong solutions a while 
and at first an amorphous precipitate, which ultimately 
becomes crystalline, and is insoluble in excess of precipi- 
tant or in strong acids. Ammonia gives similar precipi- 
tate, but it is soluble in very slight excess. 
2. HBr saturated with free bromine gives a yellow 
precipitate soon becoming crystalline, insoluble in either 
acetic acid, mineral acids or caustic alkalies. 
3. Iodine in solution of KI gives reddish-brown pre- 
cipitate insoluble in caustic potash or acetic acid. 
4. Chloride of gold gives a citron-yellow precipitate, 
insoluble in potash, sparingly soluble in acids. 
5. Picric acid gives yellow crystalline precipitate solu- 
ble'in acids. 
6. Tannin gives a white amorphous precipitate solu- 
ble in caustic alkalies and in acids. 
7. Atropine dissolves slowly in strong H2S04 without 
change of color; if this solution be warmed till it be- 
comes slightly brown and then a few drops of water are 
added, an agreeable odor is evolved resembling that of 
sloe blossom or of the orange. On further treating the 
odor is intensified. 
8. When some drops of strong H2S04 are heated with GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
193 
a fragment of bichromate of potassium and then some 
atropine, with two or three drops of water, are added, the 
odor of oil of bitter almonds or of spiraea ulmaria is pro- 
duced. 
9. Gerrard’s color test: Add to a very small quantity, 
say one-half to one milligramme, of the suspected alka- 
loid or the alkaloidal substance obtained from complex 
mixtures, two cubic centimetres of a five per cent, solu- 
tion of corrosive sublimate in fifty per cent, alcohol, and 
warm very gently. If atropine was present, a red (or 
yellowish-red) precipitate will be produced. Hyoscyamine 
might under certain conditions be mistaken for atropine, 
while this test is applied, but from the following it will 
be seen that they may be clearly distinguished. If one 
milligramme of hyoscyamine is treated with two c.c. of 
the above reagent, the red precipitate does not make its 
appearance, either immediately on warming, or after 
standing for hours. But, if only one to two drops of the 
reagent are added to the hyoscyamine, a short warming 
produces the same red precipitate as in the case with 
atropine. Gerrard’s test is, of course, useless when in- 
organic alkalies are present, since they produce the same 
kind of precipitate. And finally it should be stated that 
the above reaction occurs only in solution of the alkaloids 
themselves, and not in that of their salts. (American 
Druggist.) 
None of the other alkaloids, except daturine, hyoscya- 
mine, duboisine and homatropine, gave the red precipi- 
tate. 
Atropine when dissolved in strong H2S04 may be told 
from morphine by yielding no coloration with nitric acid; 
from stiychnine, by none with potassium dichromate. 
Prolonged contact with potassium dichromate causes the 
solution to turn green. 
Picric acid does not yield the precipitate mentioned in 194 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
(5) with the salts of atropine. It is well, before apply- 
ing tests for atropine, to rule out other alkaloids, as many 
give precipitates resembling those of atropine. The 
physiological test is of the most value, although “it must 
be borne in mind that the property of dilating the pupil 
is also possessed by daturine, hyoscyamine, duboisine 
and certain other alkaloids.” (Wormley.) 
Yitali finds that out of sixty-four alkaloids atropine 
and its congeners are the only ones that respond to his 
test, which is as follows: Place atropine or any of its 
salts in the solid state in a porcelain capsule, heat with a 
few drops of nitric acid, evaporate at a moderate tem- 
perature, touch the cooled colorless residue with a drop 
of concentrated solution of alcoholic potassium hydrate, 
when a splendid violet or purple color will appear. A 
marked purple coloration may be obtained from even the 
l-50000th of a grain of the alkaloid, especially if the 
alkaline alcoholic solution be added to the nitric acid 
residue while still warm. Chapter VIII. —NEUROTICS (CONTINUED) — NUX 
VOMICA, CURARE, ACONITE, HYDROCY- 
ANIC ACID, PHYSOSTIGMINE, 
CONINE. 
Conyulsants: Nux vomica, strychnine, brucine. 
Thirty grains of the powder of nux vomica in a doubtful 
case and half an ounce in well-recorded instances have 
caused death; so have also three grains of the alcoholic 
extract. Death may occur in from fifteen minutes to twelve 
hours. Nux vomica has been called a cumulative poison 
from cases noticed. Strychnine has been already con- 
sidered. Brucine resembles strychnine, but is less pow- 
erful. It gives a red with nitric acid, thus distinguish- 
ing it from strychnine. It does not decompose iodic acid 
and is thus told from morphine. 
Paralysants: Curare, physostigma, conium. The 
symptoms of curare are complete muscular paralysis, 
slowing of heart’s action and diminished respiration till 
life is extinct. Has little effect when swallowed, being 
chiefly active when introduced under the skin. Treat- 
ment is artificial respiration. 
The symptoms of physostigma or calabar bean are as 
follows: Giddiness, passing to paralysis of voluntary 
muscles, muscular twitches of a convulsive nature, 
myopia, contraction of the pupil. Death from paralysis 
of respiratory muscles. Treatment consists in use of 
emetics and stomach pump. The alkaloid is called phy- 
sostigmine or eserine; it is told from atropine and hyo- 
scyamine by its power to contract the pupil. 
Conium: The symptoms are headache, imperfect 
vision, loss of power to swallow, extreme drowsiness, pu- 
pils dilated and fixed, pulse variable and often intermit- 
tent, gradually complete paralysis of extremities with 
great muscular weakness and loss of power. Death from 
195 196 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
apnoea. If death be delayed, convulsions, coma, frantic 
delirium, salivation, involuntary discharge of mine and 
faeces. The alkaloid is conine; its fatal dose, one drop, 
and time of death one to three hours. Treatment: Emet- 
ics (especially mustard), stomach pump, castor oil. After 
this, stimulants. Tests: Conine is a liquid having a 
“mousy” odor; crystals are formed when it is treated 
with or exposed to vapor of hydrochloric acid; if hydro- 
chloric acid be added in great excess to the alkaloid a 
pale red tint is produced which gradually deepens in 
color; nitrate of silver gives a white precipitate, turning 
dark on exposure to light. Rubbing with caustic potash 
causes the odor of mice to become apparent in any sub- 
stance containing conine. 
Hypostlienisaiits or Syncopants: Aconite, prus- 
sic acid. 
Aconite: The symptoms most common are heat, 
numbness and tingling in mouth and throat, giddiness, 
abolition of muscular power, pupils dilated, skin cold, 
pulse very feeble, patient is conscious though numb and 
paralyzed; death due to shock or sudden and complete 
collapse or asphyxia. (Tanner.) Symptoms appear in 
from a few minutes to one or two hours; death usually in 
three or four hours. In one case delayed for twenty 
hours, in another took place in twenty minutes. Fatal 
doses: One drachm of the root, four grains of the alco- 
holic extract, one ounce of the tincture. 
The alkaloid aconitine is probably the most powerful 
poison known. In the opinion of Stevenson it is fatal in 
doses of one-thirteenth of a grain. In the case of Percy 
John, poisoned by Lamson with this alkaloid, there was 
vomiting and retching and dreadful pain (morphine was 
given), the boy became unconscious and remained so un- 
til he gradually sank and died. Soon after taking the 
poison he complained of heartburn, that his skin 'was all GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
197 
drawn up, that his mouth was painful, and that his 
throat burned much. Later he complained that the skin 
of his face was all drawn up, of a sense of constriction 
in his throat, and of being unable to swalloiv. He died 
in four hours. Post-mortem examination showed con- 
gestion of brain and membranes, dilatation of the pupil, 
lips and tongue pale (lungs congested at lower part, in- 
dicative of old inflammation), heart healthy, but empty 
and flaccid; liver and spleen congested and stomach 
greatly congested, and showed eight or ten patches (de- 
scribed as of recent inflammation). 
The treatment is to administer an emetic at once; 
finely-powdered charcoal may be given, but should be 
removed by stomach pump immediately. Stimulants, 
(as ammonia and brandy) and strong coffee and tea 
should be administered freely. Liniments and friction 
to the limbs and spine, mustard plasters to pit of stom- 
ach and slight galvanic shocks through heart are recom- 
mended by Woodman and Tidy. Nux vomica and digi- 
talis have been successfully used as antidotes. 
Tests: It gives no precipitate with platinic chloride 
and this is characteristic, but there is no distinctive 
chemical test for it; the physiological action of the alka- 
loid constitutes its chief test; rubbed inside the gums it 
produces a sense of tingling and numbness. In the 
Percy John case the fluid in the stomach yielded a resi- 
due which, when touched to the tongue, produced a pe- 
culiar burning as if a hot iron had been passed over it, 
and a desire to expectorate was caused; there was a 
taste of the alkaloid in the urine, which brought on the 
burning sensation. Extracts from the stomach fluid, 
from the liver, spleen and kidneys killed mice in twenty- 
two minutes, with symptoms of poisoning. Dr. Steven- 
son testified that while acquainted with from fifty to 
eighty alkaloids, aconitine differed in taste from all; 198 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
twenty-two experiments in regard to the taste of cadaveric 
alkaloids never gave him any taste like that of aconitine. 
The sensation on Dr. Stevenson’s tongue lasted three hours. 
Preparations of aconitine vary in strength. A case in 
point is given by Tresling (Schmidt’s Jahrbucher, B. 189, 
No. 2, 1881); A physician prescribed solution of nitrate 
of aconitine, in strength 0.2 in 100, dose twenty to sixty 
drops, every hour. The patient took five drops the first 
day; the next day twenty drops, felt a burning in his 
mouth and throat and vomited almost immediately. He 
made three more trials to take twenty drops and vomited 
each time. Finally in the evening he managed to retain 
twenty drops, but all night had oppression, and was 
seized with an icy cold feeling, although within he ex- 
perienced a sensation of heat. The physician—to prove 
that the symptoms were not due to the aconitine—took 
fifty or sixty di’ops of it. In fifteen minutes the effects 
of the poison showed themselves, and at the end of four 
hours Tresling found him manifesting the following 
symptoms: Pallor; small, irregular, but not acceler- 
ated pulse; cold skin, co?itracted pupils; sensation of 
burning in the mouth, contraction from the throat to the 
abdomen; precordial anguish, heaviness and feebleness 
of the limbs, especially of the legs. The pupils dilated 
suddenly and vision was lost, but came back again when 
the pupils contracted. Vomiting of fragments of food 
colored red. Later congestion of the brain, convulsions 
and stertorous breathing; deafness and buzzing alter- 
nately in both ears. Ether was given subcutaneously 
and electricity used to stimulate the respiration, which 
became slow and laborious, but the patient could not be 
restored to consciousness; the pupils dilated and became 
insensible to light, the heart grew feebler and feebler in 
its action, and death took place five hours after taking 
the poison. Autopsy showed great paleness of the skin GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
199 
and great congestion of internal organs. In this case 
doubtless a more poisonous aconitine was dispensed than 
was intended, though not specified, by the practitioner in 
his prescription. 
Regarding the symptoms produced by aconite, the re- 
searches of Terchet and Tucker show that of forty-one 
cases of aconite poisoning there was difficulty in swal- 
lowing in forty one, salivation in one, increased secre- 
tions in one, involuntary lachrymation in two, dryness 
of the throat in three, intense thirst in four, constriction 
of the pharynx in one, nausea in three, vomiting in sev- 
enteen—the vomited matters varying greatly in charac- 
ter, having sometimes the odor of camphor, sometimes of 
alcohol, and being sometimes mucous, sometimes hilioii's 
—diarrhoea in six cases, involuntary stools in two casesC 
tympanitis in one case, diuresis in one case. The ner- 
vous phenomena were equally variable. Certain 
toms were worthy of note. In some cases there wasb'tc 
very marked jactitation with violent movements of 
head or of a limb. In one patient the eyes protruded 
almost from their sockets. Some experienced delightfilsl 
dreams resembling those produced by haschisch. ; ThC 
pulse and respiration were in general remarkable 
their slowness-, in certain of the patients respiration fifis 
only five or six to the minute and the pulse 
Tucker’s cases were fifty-three in number; 
place in twenty-eight instances, death in twentyhiCCi 
Time of death varied from one hour to six days/' Wfcfodfi 
man and Tidy, out of thirty-three cases of 
aconite, report eighteen deaths and fourteen 
by aconitina, out of four cases, three recovCi^dC, 
death; the recoveries in the latter cases 
two and a half grains of aconitina, and 
ounce and a half of an alcoholic solution; 
was from too frequent applications of neuraii'ffi el0£a bas 200 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
Regarding the time of death, Prof. J. W. Mallet com- 
municated the following to Prof. Wormley: In six fatal 
cases which occurred at the Western Lunatic Asylum of 
Virginia in 1883, death took place respectively in eight 
minutes, ten minutes, thirteen to fifteen minutes, one 
hour and a quarter, two hours and a quarter and four 
days. 
Variations in strength of aconite and aconitine are 
often noticed. Four grains of one alcoholic extract have 
proved fatal and six grains of another have produced no 
effect whatever; in one case twenty-live minims of a tinct- 
ure of aconite root with twenty minims of tincture of 
belladonna proved fatal in three hours; most alarming 
symptoms have followed two doses of the tincture of six 
drops each taken at intervals of two hours. Five drops 
of Thayer’s fluid extract of aconite root have produced 
violent symptoms. Recovery has been known from two 
teaspoonfuls of the tincture and from an ounce and a 
half of an alcoholic solution. 
Headland thinks that one-tenth of a grain of pure 
aconitine would be a fatal dose. Pereira mentions that 
one-fiftieth of a grain nearly proved fatal to an elderly 
lady. Recovery has taken place from two grains and a 
half of aconitine. Petit’s crystallized aconitine nitrate is 
according to Plugge 170 times more active than Fried- 
laender’s preparation; one-seventh of a grain of Petit’s 
preparation caused violent symptoms in one case, and in 
another one-sixteenth of a grain proved fatal. Eight 
grains of Merck’s aconitine have proved fatal. About 
two grains of Morson’s aconitine killed Percy John. Ac- 
cording to the New Remedies, Petit’s nitrate of aconitine 
is eight times stronger than Merck’s, and Merck’s twenty 
to thirty times stronger than Friedlaender’s. 
According to Wormley, aconitine is usually amorphous 
and more or less colored, and very variable in strength, GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
201 
some of the samples being almost wholly inert. Pereira 
has met with a French preparation, of which he took 
one grain without perceiving the least effect, either on 
the tongue or otherwise. Of three samples prepared by 
different German manufacturers examined by Wormley, 
one contained a mere trace only of the alkaloid, and the 
other two appeared to consist entirely of foreign matter. 
Morson’s and Duquesnel’s aconitine have about the same 
solubility, viz., one part in 1,783 of water. Aconitine is 
often adulterated with delphinine and aconelline. 
Morson’s crystallized aconitine and Duquesnel’s crys- 
tallized aconitine have been found by Wormley to be 
about equally potent, 1-3000th grain, subcutaneously, 
killing large mice. A sample of Morson’s ordinary 
aconitine was somewhat less active than Duquesnel’s 
crystallized, as was also a sample of Trommsdorff’s acon- 
itine. Aconitine is more readily extracted from aqueous 
mixtures by chloroform than by ether. 
Hydrocyanic Acid: In large quantity this poison 
kills before any well-marked symptoms are noticed. 
During the act of swallowing a large dose the patient ex- 
periences a hot, bitter taste, and is either immediately or 
within a very few minutes seized with complete loss of 
muscular power and of consciousness. The face and 
skin will be bathed in cold, clammy perspiration; the 
hands violently clenched; the eyes fixed, prominent 
and glistening; the pupils widely dilated; the 
breathing stertorous, convulsive and gasping; the 
odor of the poison noticeable in the breath; the 
pulse almost imperceptible. Death takes place with 
a forcible expiration. If death be delayed, convulsions, 
with spasmodic closure of the jaw, are usually noticed. 
The fatal dose has been given as forty-five minims of 
the officinal acid. The smallest dose that has killed 
would appear to be a solution containing nine-tenths of 202 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
a grain of the pure acid. Similar quantities of prussic 
acid do not always produce the same results as regards 
the time of death, which varies from two minutes to an 
hour, the average being half an hour. 
The U. S. Pharm. acid should contain two per cent, 
of the pure acid; Scheele’s acid sometimes contains five 
per cent., usually less. Recovery from a mouthful of 
the British Pharm. acid (2 per cent.), two drachms of 
Yauquelin’s (3.5 per cent.) have been noted, as well as 
from other doses larger than the dose here stated as 
fatal. 
The fatal dose of the cyanide of potassium is from 
three to five grains. Essence or oil of bitter almonds 
contains ten per cent., and would probably be fatal in 
from ten to thirty drops. Cherry laurel water has killed 
in a dose of two ounces. 
The post-mortem appearances are as follows: Body 
livid, countenance pallid or sometimes livid and bloated, 
jaws firmly closed, hands clenched, blood or froth about 
the mouth, eyes prominent and glistening, often an odor 
of the acid about the body, more perceptible on opening 
the stomach. Brain shows great vascular turgescence, with 
serous effusion into the ventricles, the odor of the poison 
often being distinctly recognized. Lungs, liver, spleen, 
and kidneys invariably gorged with blood. Bile often 
deep blue tint. Venous system gorged with dark colored 
blood. Arterial system empty. Blood may be black or 
oily or of a cochineal-red, sometimes fluid, sometimes 
coagulated; it often exhales the odor of the poison, and 
should be preserved for analysis, as the acid may fre- 
quently be distilled from it. In some cases no morbid 
appearances have been found after death. Treatment: 
immediately use the cold douche and apply ammonia or 
chloride of lime to the nostrils. Keep body dry and 
warm by friction with hot towels. Tickle the back of GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
203 
the throat with a feather, and if the jaws can be opened 
use the stomach pump or else give sulphate of zinc or 
mustard and salt. Give as an antidote the following 
mixture: Tincture of the muriate of iron, to which 
liquor ammonite fortior has been added, filter, throw 
filter paper into water, shake well, and use the precipi- 
tate by spoonfuls as it falls to the bottom. 
Tests: The odor may be detected in the stomach 
sometimes when nowhere else; it has been observed 
eighteen, twenty-two and thirty hours after death, and, 
in one case, four days. There may be no odor at all, 
owing to various circumstances. The bitter taste of the 
acid may be detected when the substance is applied to 
the back of the tongue. Place contents of stomach and 
other solid matters in a clean, wide-mouthed bottle; test, 
first of all, their acidity or alkalinity. If alkaline, add 
dilute sulphuric acid until the reaction is acid. Stand 
the bottle in a basin containing a little warm water and 
expose on clean glass plates a drop of the following and 
note action of vapor evolved on them: nitrate of silver, 
weak solution caustic potash, ammonium sulphide. The 
nitrate of silver will give a white opaque film not soluble 
in a little nitric acid; the potash solution is allowed to 
remain some time; place the glass slide subsequently on 
white paper, touch with a solution of sulphate of iron ex- 
posed to air, then with a drop of dilute sulphuric acid 
and the characteristic blue color will be developed; let 
the ammonium sulphide slide stand five or ten minutes, 
then remove and evaporate slowly to dryness. Touch with a 
drop of persulphate of iron and a blood-red color is formed. 
Hydrocyanic acid in solution is readily identified by 
the nitrate of silver test, which is also of value in the 
case of soluble cyanides; from these solutions the silver 
nitrate solution throws down a white amorphous precipi- 
tate of silver cyanide, AgCy, which is insoluble in the 
fixed caustic alkalies (potassium and sodium hydrate, etc.) 204 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
and only sparingly soluble in ammonia, but readily solu- 
ble in alkaline cyanides. It is, however, insoluble in 
cold nitric acid, but soluble in the hot concentrated acid; 
hydrochloric acid decomposes it with formation of silver 
chloride and evolution of hydrocyanic acid. Nitrate of 
silver also produces white precipitates in solutions of free 
hydrochloric acid, of chlorides, carbonates, phosphates, 
tartrates and some other salts, and also with various 
kinds of organic matter. These precipitates, however, 
except that from chlorine, are readily soluble in strong 
nitric acid, in which they differ from the cyanide com- 
pound. The chloride of silver readily darkens when ex- 
posed to the light, whereas the cyanide remains un- 
changed in color; again the chloride is readily soluble in 
ammonia, while the latter is not, unless present only in 
very minute quantity. Tolerably strong solutions of 
iodides and bromides, and of their free acids, hydriodic 
and hydrobromic, yield with nitrate of silver yellowish- 
white precipitates; from dilute solutions, however, these 
precipitates, in regard to color, might readily be mistaken 
for the cyanide compound, especially when they are ob- 
tained from organic mixtures; like the cyanide deposit, 
they are nearly insoluble, or dissolve with difficulty, in 
cold nitric acid. The cyanide of silver is readily distin- 
guished from all other precipitates produced by this reagent 
in that when thoroughly dried and heated in a narrow re- 
duction tube it undergoes decomposition with the evolu- 
tion of cyanogen gas, which, when ignited, burns with a 
rose-colored flame. If this decomposition be effected in 
a small tube, which, after the introduction of the dried 
cyanide has been drawn out into a very narrow capillary 
neck, beginning something less than an inch above the 
cyanide compound, the 1-100th of a grain of the salt will 
yield satisfactory results. It is essential that the cyanide 
be thoroughly dried before being introduced into the 
tube. (Wormley.) Chapter IX.—NEUROTICS (CONCLUDED).—AS- 
PHYXIANTS, MISCELLANEOUS. 
Depressants: Digitalis, tobacco, lobelia, colcbicum, 
veratrine. 
The symptoms of digitalis are, among others, great 
slowness and irregularity of the pulse. Violent vomiting 
and extreme depression may also be noted. The alka- 
loid digit aline is probably poisonous in doses of from 
one-quarter to one half a grain. The action of the digi- 
talis is uncertain and dangerous; by some it is regarded 
as a cumulative poison. Death rarely in less than 
twenty-two hours. Recovery slow. Treatment: patient 
must lie in recumbent position for days. If no vomiting, 
use stomach pump and emetics. Tea and coffee freely. 
Stimulants and perhaps galvanism at region of heart. 
The symptoms of poisoning by tobacco are giddiness, 
confusion, trembling of the limbs, faintness and depres- 
sion, anxiety of countenance, cold sweats, nausea, purg- 
ing, violent abdominal pains, pulse weak, quivering, im- 
perceptible, breathing more and more difficult, vision 
impaired, paralysis, convulsions, death. Time of death: 
fifteen minutes from tobacco enema, three minutes from 
nicotine are recorded as the most rapid. The alkaloid 
nicotine is one of the most rapid and deadly poisons 
known. Death has followed the use of injections and de- 
coctions of tobacco; in one case only half a drachm in 
an injection and in another a drachm. Death from smok- 
ing has occurred. Two men smoked at one sitting 
seventeen and eighteen pipes respectively and died. 
Rabot reports a case (Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie, 
Sept., 1884) of a gardener who took fifty grammes of a 
preparation of tobacco juice for killing insects, etc., rep- 
resenting about six grammes or nearly one hundred 
205 206 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
grains of nicotine. The symptoms were vertigo, very 
severe abdominal pain, nausea, retching but no vomiting, 
great pallor, convulsions, abundant evacuations; death in 
about fifteen minutes. Forty cigarettes and fourteen 
full-sized cigars smoked in a period of less than twelve 
hours caused death on the evening of the following day. 
The treatment consists in the speedy removal of the 
poison and the administration of stimulants. Opium 
may sometimes be found useful to allay the excessive 
vomiting. 
Colcllicum: the symptoms are rarely delayed be- 
yond three hours, and in some cases are those closely 
resembling malignant cholera. Death usually within 
twenty-four hours. One ounce of the wine,forty-eight 
grains dried bulb, teaspoonful seeds, two ounces 
cooked leaves and a handful of flowers have severally 
caused death. Recovery from an ounce of the wine and 
an ounce of the tincture. Colchicine, the alkaloid, is 
fatal in less than half a grain. Treatment consists in 
emetics, purgatives and stimulants. 
Veratrum: The alkaloids of hellebore have been 
the subject of considerable investigation. Veratrine, 
C37H53NOn,has been found in Veratrum sabadilla and in 
cevadilla, the seeds of Asagrcea officinalis; also in Vera- 
trum album, or white hellebore, and Veratrum viride, or 
American hellebore. According to Wright and Luff, 
Veratrum album contains but very little veratrine, its al- 
kaloids being jervine, pseudojervine, rubijervine and 
veratralbine, while Veratrum viride contains, in addition 
to these, cevadine (Merck’s veratrine). 
The symptoms of poisoning by white hellebore root 
are, as a rule, sense of burning heat in the stomach, with 
of constriction and heat in mouth and throat, 
great anxiety, nausea, violent vomiting, purging, tenes- 
mus, pain in the bowels, trembling of the limbs, great GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
207 
prostration, cold sweats, small and feeble pulse, vertigo, 
dilated pupils, loss of sight, impaired speech, coldness of 
the extremities, convulsions, insensibility; these are never, 
perhaps, all present in the same case. Twenty grains of 
the powdered root of veratrum album have proved fatal, 
as has also a less quantity. The time of death is from 
three to twelve hours. Veratrum viride (Indian poke) 
has produced fatal results in a few instances, the symp- 
toms being somewhat similar to those produced by Vera- 
trum album in some six cases which have been noted. 
The fatal doses of Veratrum viride have been thirty to 
forty drops of the tincture (child), two doses of Tilden’s 
fluid extract (adult female), sixty drops, in ten-drop doses 
every three hours, of Norwood’s tincture (female of sixty), 
thirty-three minims of the tincture (adult man with pneu- 
monia), teaspoonful of officinal tincture (patient conva- 
lescing from typhoid fever). The fatal dose of veratrine 
may be put at one-tenth of a grain. The treatment in 
cases of poisoning by the veratrums is its speedy removal 
from the stomach and the administration of stimulants. 
Opium has in several instances been found highly bene- 
ficial; in some instances purgatives may be found highly 
useful (Wormley). Tests: Veratrine {pure) if touched 
with a drop or two of cold concentrated sulphuric acid as- 
sumes a yellow color, then a reddish tint, and slowly dis- 
solves to a pinkish solution, which after several minutes ac- 
quires a deep crimson-red color. If jervine be treated in 
a similar way it will assume a yellow color, quickly dissolve 
to a yellow solution, which, becoming reddish yellow, then 
dirty brown, will finally assume a bright green color. In 
poisoning by either veratrum viride or veratrum album 
the jervine of the plant is more readily recovered from 
complex mixtures than the veratrine. According to 
Wormley, no alkaloid is so readily recovered in its crys- 
talline state from the blood, when carried to this fluid by 
absorption, as jervine. 208 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
Asphyxiants: Carbonic oxide, carbonic acid, sul- 
phuretted hydrogen, carburetted hydrogen. Fires give 
off carbonic oxide, CO, especially if the combustion is 
imperfect. It forms a remarkably stable compound with 
the blood, so that the latter cannot exchange the car- 
bonic oxide for oxygen, hence the patient exposed to its 
vapors manifests certain marked symptoms. 
Carbonic acid is formed from burning fuel, from cal- 
cination of limestone or chalk, and is a product of respi- 
ration. If these gases be breathed pure, death follows 
instantaneously; if the gas be more dilute, loss of mus- 
cular power is very marked. The patient dies in a state 
of complete coma. The treatment is removal to pure air, 
cold affusions, stimulants to chest and extremities, gal- 
vanism, artificial respiration, friction, and, where the 
countenance is bloated, moderate venesection. Putrefac- 
tion after carbonic-acid poisoning is slow, and there is 
great persistence of animal heat and rigidity. An air 
containing 5 per cent, of carbonic acid and 0.5 per cent, 
of carbonic oxide is said by Leblanc to be rapidly fatal 
to animal life; a taper will burn in air proving thus fatal. 
Water gas, which is used extensively now in many of 
our cities, contains, according to Dwight, more carbonic 
oxide than coal gas. His analyses show the gas to have 
the following mean composition in 100 parts: Carbonic 
acid, 5.60; carbonic oxide, 35.7; Marsh gas and nitro- 
gen, 57.7; air, 0.9. 
Sulphuretted hydrogen is prepared in chemical 
laboratories as a reagent; is formed when sulphur is 
heated with hydrogen; spontaneously whenever a solu- 
ble sulphate remains in contact with decaying organic 
matter in limited supply of air, as in sewers and cess- 
pools. If it be breathed in the concentrated state, death 
is immediate; if somewhat diluted, insensibility and 
death. Workmen in sewers often have giddiness, nau- GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
209 
sea and weakness from breathing it. Its rotten-egg odor 
makes it less dangerous than carbonic acid, which is 
odorless. The treatment is fresh air and cold affusions; 
the patient should breathe from out of a bottle contain- 
ing a small quantity of chloride of lime. Hot brandy 
and water is recommended. 
Coal Gas: The fate of individuals who “ blow out 
the gas and go to bed” furnishes food for reflection both 
to the reporter and to the toxicologist, but seemingly to 
no one else, since cases of this kind are astonishingly 
common in spite of professional warnings. The odor of 
coal gas makes it recognizable when in the proportion of 
1 in 8,000 of air. Mice will die in an atmosphere contain- 
ing seventeen per cent, of it. The symptoms are head- 
ache, giddiness, vomiting, loss of memory,* unconscious- 
ness, convulsions, loss of muscular power, complete as- 
phyxia. The treatment is fresh air, cold affusion, stimu- 
lants, artificial respiration. 
The British Medical Journal (March 4, 1882) reports 
a case where coma, dilatation of the pupils, redness of 
the face, vomiting, acceleration of the pulse—“the usual 
signs of poisoning by illuminating gas”—were observed, 
and death took place in spite of cold affusion, fresh air 
and diffusible stimulants. 
Miscellaneous—Sewer Gas: Acute poisoning from 
gaseous constituents, as sulphuretted hydrogen, ammo- 
nium sulphide, carbonic acid or oxide; chronic poisoning 
not always referable to these, but to its action as a whole 
on the system; symptoms are developed bearing no anal- 
ogy to those of any chemically known substance, gaseous 
or otherwise (De Yarona.) Tests: papers moistened 
with solutions of acetate of lead and of sodium nitro- 
prusside respectively; the lead paper is blackened by 
sulphuretted hydrogen, the nitroprusside turned red by 
* This seems to be a marked symptom beforehand in many cases! 210 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
ammonium sulphide. Hogg’s sewer-gas indicator, in 
shape like an aneroid barometer, is much more reliable 
than these papers, which give no reaction unless the 
above-mentioned gases are present. Sewer gas is often 
deoxygenated air with excess of carbonic acid (Thenard), 
in which case the papers would be valueless for its detec- 
tion. 
Gases Of Privy Yaults: Among these are ammo- 
nium sulphide and sulphuretted hydrogen. The symp- 
toms of ammonium sulphide poisoning resemble those of 
sulphuretted hydrogen. Increased secretion of tears is 
noticed. In a case reported by Eckridge, in the Medical 
Times, of Philadelphia, poisoning by privy gases was 
cured by intravenous injections of ammonia repeated 
twelve times; all other measures had previously failed to 
restore the patient. 
Inhalations of Oxygen: Loysel recommends in- 
halations of oxygen in treatment of poisoning by chloro- 
form, ether, chloral, opium, sulphuretted hydrogen, car- 
bonic oxide, prussic acid. He argues that it is never 
contra-indicated in these cases, and should be used first 
either alone or together with other means of treatment. 
Odor of Prussic Acid: This odor (bitter almonds) 
is not as easily recognized by all individuals as the odors 
of sulphurous acid, ammonia and ether respectively. 
(Yibert and L’Hote.) An autopsy, where this odor really 
exists, if made in the presence of several persons, will 
often give rise to difference of opinion. Moreover, the 
odor is not always most marked when the stomach is first 
opened, but will be more so after this organ and its con- 
tents have remained in a closed vessel for some little 
time; agitation of the liquid contents aids in the produc- 
tion of the odor. Perception of the odor is facilitated by 
swallowing immediately after breathing the emanations. 
In a case reported by Yibert and L’Hote there was no GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
211 
rigidity at the end of forty-eight hours and putrefaction 
had begun; in spite of putrefaction they could find the 
acid in the contents of the stomach thirty-five days after 
death. (Annales d’Hygiene, May, 1883.) 
Spectroscopic Examination of the Blood in 
Poisoning by Oases: Yvon and Descoust, examining 
the blood of an asphyxiated patient, proceeded as fol- 
lows: First, examination with the spectroscope showed 
the two normal bands of oxygenated hemoglobine, but 
there was no band of reduction, therefore no sulphu- 
retted hydrogen; second, adding a little ammonium hy- 
drosulphide to the blood, the two bands disappeared and 
gave place to the unique band of Stocke, therefore no 
carbonic oxide. Chemical examination had then to be 
relied upon to demonstrate the presence of carbonic acid, 
whioh was eventually found. 
Chlorate of Potassium: Marchand, in Virchoi&s 
Archives, LXXVII, gives a resume of poisoning by this 
agent. He has observed four cases in children, three to 
seven years of age, who took ten, twelve and even thirty- 
five grammes* in less than a day, or at most thirty-six 
hours. The symptoms rapidly appearing were vomiting, 
urine scanty and bloody, yellow coloration of the skin 
even icteric, rapid debility and loss of power, then cere- 
bral phenomena, delirium and coma. Three out of the 
four died. Post-mortem appearances: Blood remark- 
able for its chocolate-brown tint, persistent even on ex- 
posure to air; kidneys brown in color; on their surface 
showed the canaliculi of the medullary substance dis- 
tended with brownish granular cylinders, evidently de- 
rived from the disintegration of the red globules. The 
spectroscope showed disappearance of the ray of hemo- 
globine and a new ray of absorption in the red. Ac- 
cording to Binz, the chlorate of potassium oxidizes the 
* About 154, 185, 543 grains respectively. 212 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
hemoglobine of the blood, and in consequence the glob- 
ules show a great tendency for agglutination; the altered 
globules accumulate in the various organs, especially in the 
kidneys, forming then brownish granulations, or granu- 
lar conglomerations, eliminated by the urine. If their 
quantity is considerable they present an obstacle to the 
urinary secretion. 
Poisoning by Copper Arseniate: I published in 
the American Observer (June, 1880) the following, trans- 
lated from the Annales d’Hygiene: 
A girl of seventeen took, Dec. 7, 1878, 750 grains of a 
preparation called “Mittis Green,” which is copper ar- 
seniate. Vomiting began half an hour after the poison 
was taken, and was promoted by administration of an 
emetic. The next day she was taken to the hospital. 
The vomiting was incessant; she had cold extremities, 
prostration, small and feeble pulse. 
Epigastric pain was very pronounced; the stools were 
loose and yellowish. 
She complained of obscurity of sight, but the poison 
produced neither its characteristic eruption nor yet pa- 
ralysis. 
Death supervened on the evening of Dec. 12; the 
prostration had become greater since the first day, but 
delirium did not supervene until twelve hours before 
death. Vomiting and diarrhoea had ceased sometime be- 
fore death. 
The autopsy held Dec. 14, at the hospital, showed an 
absolute integrity of the mucous membrane of the diges- 
tive tract. 
There was merely slight congestion of the pharynx, 
without ulceration. 
The mucous membrane of the stomach was pale and in 
appearance entirely normal; the same was true of the in- 
testines. GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
213 
The liver showed a yellowish color, indicative of fatty 
degeneration, which was demonstrated afterward by the 
microscope. 
In the other viscera, there was no lesion at all appar- 
ent. 
KEPOKT OF THE CHEMISTS. 
“ The viscera, the dejections and the urine, being sub- 
jected to analysis, the result was as follows: 
Brain:— 
Arsenic 2.4 grammes. 
Copper 1.81 “ 
Stomach and Pancreas 
In 42 grammes Arsenic 0.4 gm. 
In 47 “ Copper 0.2 
Liver:— 
Total weight 950 grammes. 
Arsenic 13.3 “ 
Copper .9.02 “ 
Heart:— 
Total weight 216 grammes. 
Arsenic traces. 
Copper 0.51 gm. 
Lungs:— 
In 100 gm Arsenic 0.7. 
In 100 gm Copper 0.47. 
Intestines:— 
In 100 gm Arsenic 0.5. 
In 100 gm Copper 0.30. 
Kidneys:— 
Total weight 380 gm. 
Arsenic 1.5 gm. 
Copper 0.76. 
Hair:— 
In 9 gm. Arsenic 0.1 grammes. 
In 4 gm. 428 Copper 0.00, 214 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
Mammary Glands:— 
In 60 grammes Arsenic 0.2 gm. 
In 64 “ Copper 0.3. 
Muscles:— 
In 40 gm Arsenic 0.1 gm. 
In 55 gm Copper 0.12. 
The researches of the experts showed a general diffus- 
sion of the arsenic throughout the organism, although lo- 
calized the poison was particularly in the liver, this 
viscus containing 13.3 grammes (about 206 grains). 
The liver contained also an abnormal amount of cop- 
per. The analysis of the vomited matters and of the 
urine, resulted as follows: 
Vomited matters: 
, Total weight, 286 gm. 
In 100 mg. of this, arsenic was found in amount 0 gm. 
1 copper, 0 gm. .09; the vomited matters were pale and 
very acid. 
Urine: 
Total volume, 69 c.c. 
In 20 c. c. was found 
Arsenic 0 mg. .05. 
Copper traces. 
Urine very acid in reaction. 
It was concluded that the girl had absorbed: 
Arsenic (nearly) 11 gm. 32. 
Copper 7 gm. 46. 
Constituents of 50 gms. of “ Mittis Green.” 
The questions asked the experts were three: 
1. Had the girl absorbed any of the poison ? A. Yes. 
Absorption proved by the finding of arsenic and of copper 
in the different organs. 
2. Is the “ Mittis Green ” in the dose in which it was 
taken, or in less quantity, of such a nature as to cause 
death ? A. Yes. Arseniows acid kills in doses of from GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
215 
two to three decigrammes. In the fifty grains of “Mittis 
Green” there were 17 gm. .36 of arsenic acid, which, be- 
ing more soluble, acts with greater energy than arseniows ; 
therefore, the quantity taken was more than sufficient to 
cause death. 
3. Is the death of the girl to be attributed to the ab- 
sorption of the poison? A. Yes. The girl died after 
manifesting a series of symptoms, among which were 
noted vomiting, diarrhoea, prostration, vertigo, extreme 
depression, loss of voice, coma, and finally death. There 
was no illness, other than from poisoning, which could ac- 
count for such symptoms. If, on the one hand, no altera- 
tion -in the mucous membrane of the intestinal tract 
took place, yet the autopsy showed a fatty condition of 
the liver and kidneys, which is brought about in the 
greater number of cases of acute poisoning. 
Gelsemiuin: The symptoms are impaired sight, 
double vision, and sometimes total blindness, with fall- 
ing and loss of control of the upper eyelids; the face is 
congested, the lips livid; the face may be pale. Pupils 
dilated and usually insensible to light; the eyes fixed 
and more or less staring. There may be falling of the 
lower jaw, the mouth being sometimes wide open. 
Speech is impaired or entirely lost, and the tongue ap- 
pears thick. The gait is staggering; the skin warm and 
moist, with occasionally free perspiration. The pulse is 
small, feeble, irregular and intermittent, but it has been 
observed full and strong. There is great muscular 
relaxation with general prostration and diminished sen- 
sibility, and the extremities are cold. The breathing is 
slow, labored, spasmodic, and sometimes stertorous. 
Violent spasms of the throat resembling those of hydro- 
phobia, have been noticed in a few cases. The mind 
usually remains clear, but unconsciousness has been pre- 
sent even where recovery followed. Time of death: in 216 
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
thirteen cases the fatal period varied from one hour to 
seven hours and a half. Fatal quantity: Twelve min- 
ims of the fluid extract in one case (child) and in another 
thirty-five drops of the tincture have proved fatal. A 
teaspoonful of the fluid extract proved fatal, to a young 
woman. Two teaspoonfuls of the fluid extract in divided 
doses proved fatal to a young man. Eight grains of 
“gelsemin,” in two-grain doses every three hours, proved 
fatal to a strong woman. The treatment consists in the 
evacuation of the stomach, and employment of internal 
and external stimulants. Electricity has been found 
very useful. Morphine subcutaneously has proved valu- 
able in one or two cases. Tests: In poisoning by gel 
semium preparations, chemical examination should be 
directed to the recovery of both gelsemic acid and gelse- 
mine. Gelsemic acid when treated with a drop of nitric 
acid dissolves with a yellow color to a yellow or reddish 
solution, the final color depending upon the relative 
quantity of the organic acid present. On treating this 
solution with excess of ammonia, it acquires a permanent 
deep or blood-red color. These results may be obtained 
from the 1-1000th of a grain of the acid, and even 
l-50000th grain will yield, under the action of ammonia, 
a marked reddish coloration. This, although a delicate 
test, does not distinguish gelsemic acid from oesculin; it 
may, however, be distinguished from oesculin by the fact 
that hydrochloric acid, which readily dissolves oesculin, 
has no effect on gelsemic acid. Gelsemine is dissolved 
by nitric acid with little or no color, but on spontaneous 
evaporation of the liquid a permanent bluish-green stain 
is left on the porcelain. (Wormley.) 
Electricity :* This is the most important remedy in 
the treatment of lead paralysis. If the diseased muscles 
* These notes on the nse of electricity have been kindly supplied me by 
Prof. Delamater and Dr, F. li. Day. GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
217 
respond to faradic stimulation, this current should bo 
applied daily, and of sufficient strength to produce 
marked contractions, the seances to last about fifteen 
minutes. If the degeneration is too great for the faradic 
current, then an interrupted descending galvanic current 
of sufficient strength to produce contractions should be 
employed, the positive pole at the back of the neck and 
the negative pole over the paralyzed muscles. Daily 
treatments, of six minutes’ duration, may be given. In all 
cases it is well to apply a constant galvanic current of 
ten cells to the cervical enlargement of the spinal cord, a 
large sponge attached to the positive pole being placed 
over the cervical vertebrae, while the negative pole rests 
upon the sternum. After the current has been flowing for 
about two minutes the direction of the current should be 
reversed and allowed to flow for two minutes more. In 
those cases that do not respond to faradism at first, a 
few applications of the galvanic current will usually re- 
store them, and then the faradic current may be substi- 
tuted for it. 
Prof. Delamater has used electricity in the treatment of 
a few cases of chloral poisoning. While it has usually 
helped them, to a certain extent, yet the effects were not 
sufficiently great to warrant him in relying on it alone, 
or to consider it an antidote to that drug. 
lTse of Electricity in Asphyxia from Coal-Gas, 
Chloroform, Opium, etc.: Stimulate the phrenic 
nerves with a strong faradic current. For this purpose 
it is well to have a forked electrode attached to the nega- 
tive pole of the battery. The two prongs are placed in 
the supra-clavicular fossse in close proximity to the pos- 
terior orders of the sterno-clido-mastoid muscles. A 
large sponge electrode attached to the positive pole of 
the battery is placed at the epigastric notch. The cur- 
rent is allowed to flow for two seconds, then the positive GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. 
218 
electrode is removed for two seconds. In this way the 
diaphragm is contracted rythmically and artificial respi- 
ration aided. It may be kept up for hours at a time, 
but should never be relied upon alone in desperate 
cases. Never forsake artificial respiration by manipu- 
lating the arms where there is profound asphyxia. 
In Chloroform poisoning, an interrupted galvanic 
current applied to the right pneumogastric is more valu- 
able than the faradic current; the positive pole placed 
behind the angle of the lower jaw and pressed firmly 
toward the spinal column, the negative poles at the epi- 
gastrium. A current of twenty or thirty cells may be 
used for ten or twenty minutes. 
The Treatment of Ptosis by Electricity: The 
interrupted galvanic current should be used; the posi- 
tive pole placed on the temple, while the negative pole 
is held over the affected lid. A current of from four to 
six cells is sufficiently strong, and the daily or tri-weekly 
treatment should be of five to six minutes’ duration. 
Hints: 
1. Use mild galvanic currents about the head. Never 
produce vertigo. Six to eight Stohrer’s cells is as much 
as should be used in ordinary cases. 
2. Galvanization of the neck should be accomplished 
with mild currents. 
3. The faradic current is best adapted in disorders of 
the abdominal viscera. 
4. A galvanic current of from ten to thirty cells may 
be used on the spine and extremities. SUPPLEMENT TO TOXICOLOGY. 
Since the previous chapters on toxicology were written, 
through the kindness of many physicians in Chicago and 
vicinity, I have learned of numerous cases, which I be- 
lieve have not been heretofore presented to the profes- 
sion in text books or in journals. 
To Dr. F. R. Day I am indebted for an account of the 
following cases, treated at Cook County Hospital: 
1. Arsenic (fatal): The patient was supposed to 
have taken some rat poison containing arsenic the night 
before he was admitted to the hospital. Symptoms: 
Profound prostration, face blue and with pinched expres- 
sion to features, cold perspiration, intense retching of 
glairy mucus, great pain but no movement of bowels. 
Treatment: Stomach washed out with stomach pump, 
emetics (thirty grains in all of zinc sulphate, mustard 
and water). Brandy hypodermics when he showed signs 
of failing. Strong Faradic current to angle of jaw and 
epigastrium. Shocks and artificial respiration. Result: 
Death in about twelve hours from time poison was taken. 
Post-mortem appearances: Stomach coated with whitish 
powder found, on analysis, to contain arsenic. Usual 
signs of poisoning by this substance. 
2. Coal-Gas (non-fatal): Two female servants brought 
to the hospital in the morning after sleeping all night in 
a room where a defective stove poisoned the air with coal- 
gas. Symptoms: Profound coma, irregular, jerky res- 
piration. Treatment: Artificial respiration and, when 
the breathing was fuller, inhalations of hartshorn and 
hypodermics of brandy, irritation of the surface by slap- 
ping chest with wet towels. 
3. Opium (non-fatal): This case is remarkable for 
the successful treatment used. After all the usual meth- 
219 220 
SUPPLEMENT TO TOXICOLOGY. 
ods had failed, the patient was restored to life, after 
breathing had ceased, by pouring a small steady stream 
of ice water from a height of about seven feet on the 
chest. A gallon of the ice water was poured in this 
manner on the chest of the patient, who was then covered 
with warmed blankets, hot water cans being applied to 
his feet, and artificial respiration tried. After the first 
gallon of water had been poured on, the patient gasped 
faintly and breathed a few times, but the breathing 
could not be kept up. After the second gallon had been 
poured on he again gasped, began to breathe, and this 
time the breathing was sustained and recovery took 
place. 
Dr. Percy Bryant has furnished me with information 
concerning the following hospital cases, some of which 
were treated by himself: 
4. Oil of Tansy (non-fatal): A girl of twenty-two 
took some oil of tansy to induce miscarriage. Symptoms: 
When brought to hospital at 2:30 p. m. she had tonic 
and clonic convulsions, opistholonos, the eyes turned 
backward and toward the corners, the face was burning 
and congested, there was grinding of the teeth and foam- 
ing at the mouth, yellowish froth being noticed; there 
was spasm of the muscles of the throat, a choking and 
rattling sound being heard. The eyes were injected 
pupils widely dilated and immovable. The spasms came 
on every alternate minute, being followed by a minute of 
rest. The body was warm. Treatment: Five drops 
tincture of belladonna hypodermically; in two minutes 
a slight diminution in the severity of the spasms was 
noted. Pulse, 100. In two minutes amyl nitrate was 
administered by inhalation. In ten minutes a change 
for the better took place; the patient asked for water 
and after drinking it vomited undigested food. The hy- 
podermics of belladonna were continued every half hour. SUPPLEMENT TO TOXICOLOGY. 
221 
She became conscious and said she had taken some med- 
icine to cause miscarriage. One-fourth of a grain of the 
sulphate of morphine was then given. Vomiting was the 
next symptom, with slight spasms; pain in lower part of 
the abdomen, over uterus and ovaries and extending to 
the loins. The pain was griping and expulsive in char- 
acter. When the patient was first brought in she was 
insensible to the prick of a pin all over the body, but the 
conjunctiva was still sensible. At 7 p. m. she was vom- 
iting food and suffering much pain. At 10 p. m. there 
was vomiting, and slight spasms of the cervical muscles 
were noted. Strychnine sulphate 2x in solution was 
given hypodermically. Hot applications were made to 
the abdomen. Her thirst being intense, she was given 
ice to eat. At 12 midnight hypodermics of morphine 
and atropine were given; also gelsemium. At 1 a. m. a 
rectal injection of spirits of camphor was given. At 3 
a. m. the spasms began again, when fifteen drops of gel- 
semium and half a grain of morphine were given. There 
was vomiting of a little blood. At 6 a. m. she was 
slightly improved, and a nourishing enema was given; 
she afterward became weak, the heart and respiration 
began to fail, and hypodermics of whisky were given 
every half hour. At 9 a. m. there was pain and vomit- 
ing. The lips were pale, the pupil contracted, the pulse 
weak, the heart fainter. At 12 noon the symptoms were 
about the same. At 2:30 p. m., twenty-four hours after 
the admission to the hospital, the pulse was almost im- 
perceptible, respiration ten to the minute and very light. 
Aromatic spirits of ammonia was given and there was 
immediate improvement. At 3 p. m. a hypodermic of 
one-thirtieth grain of strychnine in solution was admin- 
istered, followed in fifteen minutes by fifteen drops more 
of the same. The impulse of the heart was now better, 
the pain was less, the vomiting limited. There was 222 
SUPPLEMENT TO TOXICOLOGY. 
thirst, but no water was allowed to be given her. At 4 
p. m. she was much better; pulse, 84; the pain was 
nearly gone, and she asked for food. From then on 
there was gradual recovery. 
5. Opium (non-fatal): Patient took twenty-five cents’ 
worth morphine sulphate. Conveyed to the hospital 
three hours after taking the poison. The symptoms 
were as follows: Drowsiness, pupils small and con- 
tracted; the patient was, however, easily aroused. He 
had vomited twice, the last time immediately after enter- 
ing the hospital. The treatment by Dr. M. J. Bliem 
consisted in the administration of one-fortieth grain of 
atropine hypodermically, the stomach being washed out 
with stomach pump. The patient was kept moving till 
late at night. Recovery next day. 
6. Opium (fatal): Woman in third stage of morphine 
poisoning. Admitted in the evening; artificial respira- 
tion kept up till morning; battery used continuously for 
six or seven hours; atropine given hypodermically. 
Breathing and consciousness were restored. She died, 
however, from asthenia three days afterward. 
7. Opium (fatal): Another case in the third stage. 
The stomach pump, artificial respiration and stimulants 
were used. The patient lived for a week, but then sank 
away and died. 
8. Opium (fatal): A man forty-five years of age was 
found in a room where he had been twenty-four hours 
without help. Conveyed to the hospital at midnight. 
His face was cyanotic, the extremities cold; there was 
spasms; the breathing was stertorous, the tongue dry, 
the pupils dilated; he could not be aroused. Treatment 
by Dr. Percy Bryant: The stomach pump having 
brought up matters smelling strongly of opium, artificial 
respiration was tried, but without avail; the battery was 
used and flagellation, the latter rousing the patient SUPPLEMENT TO TOXICOLOGY. 
223 
somewhat. Hypodermics of whisky were given, as was 
also atropine, subcutaneously, one-twentieth of a grain 
in all, and aromatic spirits of ammonia. The patient died 
at 6 a. m. 
9. Opium (fatal): A woman of fifty. When brought 
to the hospital was cyanotic and cold; breathing sterto- 
rous and rather rapid; mouth open; pupils contracted; 
pulse very weak. The treatment was by Dr. Bryant. 
The stomach pump was used, but brought up nothing of 
consequence; hypodermics of whisky were administered, 
and three hypodermics of atropine (about one-twentieth 
grain in all). A ten-cell galvanic battery, connected with 
the helix of a faradic, gave shocks which would cause the 
patient to cry out, jump and breathe better. (Previously 
flagellation with wet towels had had no effect.) The ef- 
fect of the shocks gradually decreased and, in spite of 
hypodermics of whisky and ammonia, she died rather 
suddenly at four in the afternoon, four hours after being 
admitted. 
From cases six, seven, eight and nine will be seen the 
difficulty of treating opium poisoning successfully when 
in the last stage, case three being a remarkable excep- 
tion. Case five is a good illustration of what may be done 
when the patient is taken in hand soon after swallowing 
the poison. Case four is rather unusual, and the notes 
of it have been given in full. 
The following cases in alphabetical order of poisons 
occurred outside of hospital practice. Notice of them is 
made as brief as possible: 
10. Aconite (non-fatal): Dr. Charles Gatchell is my 
authority for the following: He took thirteen drops of 
the pure homoeopathic tincture of aconite; the result was 
coldness of the surface of the body, severe aching pains 
in all the muscles, tingling in the posterior part of 
the throat, nausea, vomiting, slow pulse, scanty urine, 224 
SUPPLEMENT TO TOXICOLOGY. 
restlessness. Symptoms subsided in four or five hours. 
No treatment necessary. 
11. Atropine (non-fatal): Dr. F. H. Foster has 
kindly fu;nished me with notes on the following: Girl 
of fifteen, after one instillation of a four-grain-to-the- 
ounce sohitionof atropine, manifested violent symptoms; 
there was furious delirium, during which she tried to 
jump from the window, to tear her clothing, etc., etc. 
Strong infusion of coffee brought about recovery. 
12. Little girl of five used a two-grain solution for re- 
current corneal ulceration. The symptoms were, frequent 
desire to urinate, urination accompanied by great pain, 
urine scanty and very red. Same symptoms appeared 
when one-grain solution was used. 
13. Atropine (non-fatal): A child of three or four 
years ate seven or eight powders out of ten, into which 
one-fortieth grain of atropine had been divided. The 
symptoms of poisoning soon subsided. (Reported to me 
by Dr. A. G. Beebe.) 
14. Belladonna (non-fatal): Dr. A. W. Woodwrard 
calls my attention to a case where four drops of the 
homoeopathic tincture produced abdominal symptoms in 
an adult. There were no cerebral or cutaneous symp- 
toms, but the abdomefi became tympanitic. 
15. Belladonna (non-fatal): Dr. J. W. Streeter saw 
a case where inspissated belladonna had been taken by 
mistake for licorice. Emetics being administered, recov- 
ery took place. 
16. Carbolic Acid—externally—(non-fatal): Dr. F. 
R. Day reports to me that a five per cent, solution used 
as a bath to destroy vermin has caused, in one case, 
fainting, dizziness, fullness in the head, and almost syn- 
cope; symptoms lasted three-quarters of an hour; irrita- 
tion of the stomach was noticed. 
17. Carbolic Acid (non-fatal): Dr. Charles Gatchell SUPPLEMENT TO TOXICOLOGY. 
225 
furnishes me with the following particulars: Child 
of five drank unknown amount of ninety-five per cent, 
acid. The mouth was well cauterized and whitened. In 
about three-quarters of an hour there was vomiting of 
matters containing some little blood. There was no 
coma. Dilute ammonia was given and subsequently 
white of egg plentifully. Recovery took place in about 
a week, the child being fed on milk. 
18. Chloral (non-fatal): Dr. Beebe knows of two 
cases, in one of which 100 grains of chloral were taken 
and in another 200, where recovery took place. In his 
judgment chloral does its greatest harm when morphine 
is given with it. Several cases have terminated fatally 
when, after prolonged use of chloral, hypodermics of 
morphine have been administered. 
19. Chloral (non-fatal): Dr. J. W. Streeter has fur- 
nished me with the particulars of the following case: 
Patient took from 100 to 120 grains of chloral in all, and 
when found was rigid and with jaws set. The treatment 
was ammonia, coffee, and heat externally. Recovery took 
place, but there was prostration for two or three weeks. 
20. Chloroform (fatal): That chloroform in extra- 
ordinarily small quantity will sometimes cause death of 
an unaccountable nature is well known to toxicologists. 
Woodman and Tidy speak of a case where 15 minims (in- 
haled) proved fatal. Dr. A. G. Beebe some years ago 
had experience with a case of this kind. Very little of 
the anaesthetic had been administered when the patient 
suddenly died. No cause for death could be found. 
21. Coal-Gas (non-fatal): Dr. Gatchell reports a 
case where a mother and child were poisoned from a 
stove in an adjoining room. When found were uncon- 
scious, breathing lightly, pulse feeble. Fresh air and 
artificial respiration restored consciousness in about an 
hour. 226 
SUPPLEMENT TO TOXICOLOGY. 
22. Creasote (fatal): Dr. Gratchell has heard of a 
case where creasote, used as an application to a tooth, 
and probably swallowed, caused inflammation of the 
stomach and death. 
Nitric Acid (non-fatal): “Health normal, pulse 
78, full and regular; 11:80 a. m., took ten drops 
concentrated acid in half a tumbler of water; soon press- 
ure and heaviness in forehead, with darting pains in 
ears and vertigo; can walk straight only by an effort of 
the will, attended by chilliness and nausea; 12 m., nau- 
sea increased into vomiting, with pains in mouth, throat 
and stomach, vision obscured, • eyes feel hot and exco- 
riated, feeling of intoxication continues; vomited only 
once, but made repeated attempts, with retching after- 
ward; 12:15, vesical irritation and desire to urinate— 
urine scalding; 12:80, urinated again—scant and hot; 
during the repeated urination odor pungent; toward 
evening drawing pains in back and loins; pulse 68, and 
weak; desire for stool, but no relief; evening, difficult, 
pasty stool, with tenesmus and burning in rectum after- 
ward. Second day, felt restless and uneasy, with pain in 
head and neck, chilliness and shuddering even when 
near the hot stove; passive, epistaxis of dark blood; de- 
sire for stool, but slight relief; urinary symptoms con- 
tinue, rheumatic pains and drawing in legs, running up 
the inner side of leg to groin, with soreness of testes, in- 
disposed to read or study; cannot apply the mind. Third 
day, pulse slow and irregular; feel very languid, with 
continual chilliness; two diarrhseac stools during morn- 
ing, with tenesmus, occasional loose cough. Fourth day, 
papular eruption (dark red) in clusters on various por- 
tions of trunk and neck, with soreness and itching, con- 
tinued upward of a week.” 
The preceding is the experience of one of the class 
at the Chicago Homoeopathic Medical College. I am in- SUPPLEMENT TO TOXICOLOGY. 
227 
debted to Prof. A. W. Woodward, M. D., for the notes 
of the proving. 
23. Opium (non-fatal): Child of three years took 
one grain of morphine sulphate in sugar-coated pills. 
When seen by Dr. A. G. Beebe, six hours afterward, was 
not yet comatose, but had strong desire to sleep. An 
emetic of mustard and water and, as antidote, tincture of 
belladonna, brought about recovery. 
24. Opium (fatal): Dr. J. W. Streeter gives me the 
following particulars: A patient took six doses of twenty 
drops of laudanum each, and also a seventh dose the 
amount of which is unknown. Vomiting took place after 
the fourth dose and also after the fifth and sixth. When 
seen by physicians there was loss of consciousness and 
death soon followed. In the short time between the 
arrival of the physicians and the death of the patient 
electricity was used. 
25. Opium (now fatal): This case is also communicated 
by Dr. Streeter: Sixteen quarter-grain pills of the sul- 
phate of morphine were taken. Tincture of lobelia hy- 
podermically and mustard and water provoked vomiting, 
after which capsicum tea was given. 
26. Potlopliyllin (non-fatal): Dr. Percy Bryant took 
on an empty stomach three grains of crude podophyllin 
by mistake for the homoeopathic podophyllin. In one 
hour and a half after eating breakfast, vomiting, sudden- 
ly and without warning, took place. The matters thrown 
up were not biliary in character. Violent headache fol- 
lowed and great weakness. Four hours afterward he 
began to vomit biliary matters very frequently; purg- 
ing, vomiting, cold sweats and weakness were prominent 
symptoms until evening, when the vomiting and 
diarrhoea ceased. 
27. Dr. A. W. Woodward has called my attention to 
the poisonous nature of potassium bichromate, as shown SUPPLEMENT TO TOXICOLOGY. 
228 
by the experience of provers of this drug. Half a grain 
of the first decimal trituration in some cases has caused 
symptoms of gastro-enteritis lasting four days.* 
28. Strychnine (non-fatal): Dr. Beebe reports a 
case where*a patient taking strychnine vomited and had 
spasms. The vomiting being kept up by emetics, the 
patient recovered. 
* Bartholow gives the dose of the crude drug as from one-fifth to one-half 
grain. APPENDIX. 
Pakt I. 
Notes on Inorganic Chemistry: 
TABLE OE ELEMENTS. 
Aluminium A1 27 
Antimony Sb 120 
Arsenic As 74.9 
Barium Ba 136.8 
Beryllium Be 9 
Bismuth Bi 210 
Boron Bo 11 
Bromine Br 79.8 
Cadmium Cd 111.8 
Caesium Cs 132.6 
Calcium Ca 40 
Carbon C 12 
Cerium Ce 141 
Chlorine Cl 35.4 
Chromium Cr 52.4 
Cobalt Co 58.9 
Copper Cu 63.2 
Didymium Di 144.6 
Erbium E 165.9 
Fluorine FI 19 
Gallium G 68.8 
Gold Au 196.2 
Hydrogen H 1 
Indium In 113.4 
Iodine I 126.6 
Iridium Ir 192.7 
Iron Fe 55.9 
Lanthanum La 138.5 
Lead Pb 206.5 
Lithium Li 7 
Magnesium Mg 24 
Manganese Mn 54 
Mercury Hg 199.7 
Symbol. 
Atomic 
weight. 
Symbol. 
Atomic 
weight. 
Molybdenum .... Mo 95.5 
Nickel Ni 58 
Niobium Nb 94 
Nitrogen N 14 
Osmium Os 198.5 
Oxygen O 16 
Palladium Pd 105.7 
Phosphorus P 31 
Platinum Pt 194.4 
Potassium K 39 
Rhodium Rh 104.1 
Rubidium Rb 85.3 
Ruthenium Ru 104.2 
Scandium Sc 44 
Selenium Se 78.8 
Silicon Si 28 
Silver Ag 107.7 
Sodium Na 23 
Strontium Sr 87.4 
Sulphur S 32 
Tantalum Ta 182 
Tellurium Te 128 
Thallium T1 203.7 
Thorium Th 233 
Tin Sn 117.7 
Titanium Ti 48 
Tungsten W 183.6 
Uranium U 238.5 
Vanadium V 51.3 
Ytterbium Yb 172.7 
Yttrium Y 89.8 
Zinc Zn 64.9 
Zirconium Zr 90 
-(From Simon’s Chemistry). 230 
APPENDIX. 
Equivalence of the Elements: 
VAB. 
Monads:— 
Hydrogen 
Fluorine 
Chlorine i, in, y, vii. 
Brominei i, in, y, vii. 
Iodine i, m, v, vii. 
Lithium 
Sodium i, iii. 
Potassium i, iii, v. 
Rubidium 
Caesium 
Silver i, iii. 
Thallium i, hi. 
Triads:— 
Nitrogen i, iii, v. 
Phosphorus i, iii, v. 
Arsenic i, iii, v. 
Antimony iii, v. 
Bismuth m, v. 
Boron 
Gold i, iii. 
Pentads:— 
Columbium 
Tantalum 
Vanadium in, v. 
Also (V2)viii and (V2)iv 
Dyads:— 
Oxygen 
Sulphur ii, iv, yi. 
Selenium ii, iv, vi. 
Tellurium ii, iv, vi. 
Calcium ii, iv. 
Strontium n, iv. 
Barium n, iv. 
Magnesium 
Zinc 
VAB. 
Dyads:— 
Cadmium 
Glucinum 
Yttrium 
Cerium 
Lanthanum 
Didymium 
Erbium 
Mercury (Hg2)", n. 
Copper (Cu2) ", ii. 
Lead ii, iv. 
Tetrads:— 
Carbon ii, iv. 
Silicon 
Titanium u, it. 
Tin n. it. 
Thorium 
Zirconium 
Aluminum (Al2)vi 
Platinum ii, iy. 
Palladium ii, iy. 
Indium 
Hexads :— 
Molybdenum ii,iv,vi. 
Tungsten iy, yi. 
Ruthenium n, iy, vi. 
Rhodium ii, iy, yi. 
Iridium n, iy, yi. 
Osmium ii, iv, yi. 
Chromium n, iy, yi. 
Manganese ii, iy, yi. 
Iron ii, iy, yi. 
Cobalt ii, iy. 
Nickel ii, iy. 
Uranium ii, iy. APPENDIX 
231 
Electro-Chemical Series of the Elements: 
non-metals: negative. 
Oxygen. 
Sulphur. 
Nitrogen. 
Fluorine. 
Chlorine. 
Bromine. 
Iodine. 
Selenium. 
Phosphorus. 
Arsenic. 
Chromium. 
Vanadium. 
Negative End. 
Molybdenum. 
Tungsten. 
Boron. 
Carbon. 
Antimony. 
Tellurium. 
Tantalum. 
Columbium. 
Titanium. 
Silicon. 
Hydrogen. 
metals: positive. 
Gold. 
Osmium. 
Iridium. 
Platinum. 
Rhodium. 
Ruthenium. 
Palladium. 
Mercury. 
Silver. 
Copper. 
Uranium. 
Bismuth. 
Tin. 
Indium. 
Lead. 
Cadmium. 
Thallium. 
Cobalt. 
Nickel. 
Iron. 
Positive End. 
Zinc. 
Manganese. 
Lanthanum. 
Didymium. 
Cerium. 
Thorium. 
Zirconium. 
Aluminum. 
Erbium. 
Yttrium. 
Glucinum. 
Magnesium. 
Calcium. 
Strontium. 
Barium. 
Lithium. 
Sodium. 
Potassium. 
Rubidium. 
Caesium. 
Molecular Weights: 
The molecular weight of a compound substance is the 
sum of the weights of its constituent atoms. The fol- 
lowing table shows the most important: 
Water 18 
Hydrogen peroxide 34 232 
APPENDIX. 
Hydrochloric acid 36.4 
Ammonia gas 17 
Sulphuretted hydrogen 34 
Marsh • gas 16 
Nitrous oxide 44 
Hydrofluoric acid 20 
Carbonic acid (dioxide) 44 
Carbonic oxide (monoxide) 28 
Carbon disulphide 76 
Nitric acid 63 
Sulphuric acid 98 
Sulphurous acid 82 
Phosphoric acid (glacial) 80 
Boracic acid 62 
Silicic (Silica, Si02) 60 
Potassium bromide 118.8 
iodide 165.6 
carbonate 138 
hydrate 56 
nitrate 101 
cyanide 65 
phosphate (“Kali Phos.”).. .174 
sulphate 174 
chlorate 122.4 
dichromate 294.8 
permanganate 314 
hypophosphite 104 
Sodium chloride 58.4 
hydrate 40.0 
carbonate 286.0 
bicarbonate 84.0 
sulphate 322.0 
sulphite 252.0 
hyposulphite 248.0 APPENDIX. 
phosphate (“Nalr Phos.”) 358.0 
nitrate 85.0 
Ammonium 18.0 
Ammonia gas 17.0 
Ammonium carbonate 157.0 
“Ammonium carbonicum” 236.0 
Ammonium chloride 53.4 
Silver nitrate 169.7 
iodide 234.3 
oxide 231.4 
Calcium carbonate 100.0 
oxide 56.0 
hydrate 74.0 
phosphate (“Calc. Phos.”) 306.0 
Bone phosphate 310.0 
chloride 111.0 
sulphate (“Calc. Sulphurica”) 172.0 
iodide 294.0 
hypophosphite 170.0 
Barium carbonate 197.0 
chloride 244.0 
iodide 427.0 
Magnesium oxide 40.0 
sulphate 246.0 
carbonate 484.0 
Zinc sulphate 286.9 
chloride 135.7 
bromide 224.5 
oxide 80.9 
iodide 318.1 
carbonate 546.5 
phosphide 256.7 
Mercuric chloride 270.5 
iodide 452.9 
oxide 215.7 234 
APPENDIX. 
cyanide 251.7 
subsulphate 727.1 
Ammoniated mercury .251.1 
Mercurous chloride 470.2 
iodide 652.6 
Copper sulphate 249.2 
ammonio sulphate 245.3 
Arsenious iodide 454.7 
oxide 197.8 
Arseniate of sodium 311.9 
Antimony oxide 288.0 
terchloride 226.2 
. trisulphide 336.0 
Bismuth oxynitrate 306.0 
Lead iodide 459.7 
nitrate 330.5 
oxide 222.5 
carbonate 773.5 
Aluminum oxide 102.0 
hydrate 156.0 
trihydrate (“Alumina”) 78.4 
chloride 267.0 
“Alumen” (potash alum) 949.8 
Chromic acid 100.4 
Ferric chloride 540.2 
hydrate 213.8 
hypophosphite 501.8 
Ferrous sulphate 277.9 
Manganese sulphate 222.0 
dioxide 86.0 
Empirical Formulae: On page 18, section 47, un 
der Theory, mention is made of empirical formulae. For 
more thorough explanation, see “Notes on Organic 
Chemistry ” in this Appendix. APPENDIX. 
235 
Homoeopathic Terms: The homoeopathic terms for 
the metals silver, zinc, copper, lead and bismuth in the 
pure state for medicinal use are: Argentum, zincum, 
cuprum, plumbum, bismuthum metallicum. 
Drinking Water: A good drinking water contains 
on an average from one to three parts of solids (chiefly 
carbonate of lime and common salt) in 10,000 parts of 
water and about one volume of carbon dioxide in 100 
volumes of water. It should be fresh, limpid, odorless, 
of a temperature of from 46 deg. F. to 59 deg. F.; its 
taste should be feeble, neither insipid, saline, nor sweet- 
ish. 
Method of Using the Permanganate Solution for 
Testing Purity of Water: To 100 c.c. (3| fluid 
ounces) of water add 10 c.c. (about three fluid drachms) 
of diluted sulphuric acid; boil and add enough solution 
of potassium permanganate (one part by weight of the 
latter to 1,000 of water) to impart to the liquid a de- 
cided rose-red tint; this tint should not be destroyed by 
boiling for five minutes. 
Other Tests for the Purity of Distilled Water 
may be made as follows: the presence of organic matter 
may be demonstrated by evaporating about two pints of 
it in a small porcelain or platinum dish over a water bath 
(a vessel, usually of copper, in which water is heated to 
the boiling point and on top of which the dish contain- 
ing the liquid to be evaporated may be set). The resi- 
due represents the total amount of solids in the water 
and is usually of a white color. If this, on being scraped 
out and further heated in an iron spoon over a flame, 
turns black, the presence of organic matter is indicated. 
According to Dr. Wynter Blyth, paralysis, colic, gout, 
rheumatism, kidney disease, blindness, and even insanity, 
may all come from drinking water with lead in it. His 
test for lead in water is merely the addition of a little 236 
APPENDIX. 
tincture of cochineal, which, if there be the least trace of 
lead in the water, will color it blue instead of red. 
The taste and odor of water cannot be wholly relied 
upon. Sulphuretted hydrogen, which gives water the 
taste of rotten eggs, does not make it necessarily un- 
wholesome. A few years ago the Boston water became 
almost undrinkable, owing, probably, to the presence of 
some vegetation, but no increase of sickness was noticed; 
on the other hand, water containing a large amount of 
organic matter and contaminated with leakage from a 
neighboring vault may be clear and pleasant to the taste. 
(Boston Journal of Chemistry.) A very simple house- 
hold test for organic matter in water is the sugar test: 
Add ten grains of pure granulated sugar to a half pint 
of the water, corking it up in a bottle and letting it stand 
for a few days in a warm room. If the water be very 
impure, numerous whitish specks will appear in a day or 
two, which after some time will adhere together and 
settle down to the bottom of the bottle. 
Aqua Destillata: The purest natural water is rain 
water. This, however, is somewhat contaminated with 
matters washed from the air. River and lake waters, 
especially those found in granite regions, are the purest 
potable waters. But to obtain water pure enough for 
chemical operations and medicinal uses recourse is had 
to the process of distillation. 
Mineral Waters: These are spring waters contain- 
ing one or more substances in such quantities as to im- 
part to the water often a peculiar taste and generally a 
decided medicinal action. Carbonated waters contain 
excess of carbon dioxide, are cold, sparkling in appear- 
ance, and redden litmus; alkaline waters contain a larger 
quantity of sodium bicarbonate, as well as common salt 
and Glauber’s salt; sulphuretted waters contain, among 
other constituents, sulphuretted hydrogen; saline waters APPENDIX. 
237 
are either magnesian, chlorinated or ferrous: the mag- 
nesian waters contain sulphates and carbonates of so- 
dium, calcium and magnesium; the chlorinated waters 
contain chlorides, as for example sea-water; the ferrous 
or chalybeate waters contain usually carbonate of iron. 
Some few saline springs contain salts of lithium; silicious 
waters are those containing alkaline silicates. 
The mineral springs of the United States are many in 
number: New York, Virginia, Kentucky and Wisconsin 
are abundantly supplied, to say nothing of Missouri, 
California, and several other states and territories of the 
far west. The most famous springs of New York 
State are the Ballston, Saratoga, Richfield and Sharon. 
Ballston has several saline springs, one of them con- 
taining lithium; Saratoga has a number of saline springs, 
of which the Congress, Hathorn, Geyser, and Vichy are 
well known; Richfield and Sharon have sulphuretted 
springs. The State of Pennsylvania has a number of 
springs. At Cresson, on the Pennsylvania railroad, 
there is a noted saline spring; at Bedford the water is 
purgative; at Gettysburg, saline. In Virginia the White 
Sulphur Spring, on the Chesapeake & Ohio railroad, is 
famous; its water contains sulphuretted hydrogen. 
There are many other springs in Virginia: the Bath 
Alum, chalybeate; Capon, alkaline; the Sweet Springs, 
carbonated. The Buffalo Lithia Springs are in Virginia. 
Kentucky is noted for the Blue Lick sulphuretted water 
and the Harrodsburg purgative. At Waukesha, in Wis- 
consin, there are several springs, as a rule alkaline and 
calcareous. Some of the Waukesha springs have the 
advantage of being valuable for table waters. Colorado 
has numerous springs, while California and Oregon are 
well supplied with alkaline, sulphuretted and chalybeate 
waters. Thermal springs are those whose water is of 
elevated temperature. 238 
APPENDIX. 
Mineral springs vary greatly in the amount of solids 
contained. Sea water has about 2,500 grains to the 
gallon; the spring recently opened at Ypsilanti, Mich., 
1,205; Ballston Lithia 1238; on the other hand, the Tun- 
bridge chalybeate spring in England has only seven 
grains to the gallon, and several of the "Waukesha 
springs in this country contain very small amounts. APPENDIX. 
239 
Compounds as they ex- 
ist in Solution in the 
Waters. 
Champion 
Spouting 
Spring. 
Congress 
Spring. 
Empire 
Spring. 
Excel- 
sior 
Spr.* 
Geyser 
Spout- 
ing Spr. 
Hath’rn 
Spring. 
High 
Rock 
Spring. 
Pavil- 
ion 
Spring. 
Red 
Spring. 
Star 
Spring. 
Triton 
Spring. 
Sara- 
toga 
Vichy. 
Chloride of sodium 
702.239 
400.444 
506.630 
370.642 
562.080 
509.968 
390.127 
459.903 
83.530 
378.962 
238.500 
128.689 
Chloride of potassium. 
40.446 
8.049 
4.292 
7.000 
24.634 
9.597 
8.497 
7.660 
6.857 
9.229 
16.980 
14.113 
3.579 
8.559 
0.266 
2.212 
1.534 
0.731 
0.987 
55.650 
1.800 
0.990 
0.234 
0.138 
0.006 
4.235 
0 248 
0 198 
0.086 
0.071 
8.000 
0.042 
6.247 
4.761 
2.080 
9.004 
11.447 
9.486 
0.942 
5.129 
1.760 
Bicarbonate of soda... 
17.624 
10.775 
9.022 
15.000 
71.232 
4.288 
34.888 
3.764 
15.327 
12.662 
67.617 
82.873 
Bicarbonate of magnes. 
193.912 
121.757 
42.953 
32.333 
149.343 
176.463 
54.924 
76.267 
42.413 
61.912 
70.470 
41.503 
Bicarbonate of lime... 
227.070 
143.399 
109.656 
77.000 
168.392 
170.646 
131.739 
120.169 
101.256 
120.549 
40.260 
95.522 
0.082 
Trace. 
0.425 
2.083 
0.928 
0.070 
2.014 
1.737 
0.875 
0.992 
0.593 
Bicarbonate of iron — 
0.647 
0.340 
0.793 
3.215 
0.979 
1.128 
1.478 
2.570 
1.213 
1.557 
0.052 
0.252 
0.889 
2.769 
0.318 
1.608 
2.033 
6.400 
0.010 
0.016 
0.023 
1.321 
0 006 
0.007 
0 458 
0.418 
0 131 
1.223 
0.329 
2.100 
0.473 
Silica 
0.699 
0.840 
1.145 
4.000 
0.665 
1.260 
2.260 
3.155 
3.255 
1.283 
1.280 
0.758 
Trace. 
ion, 281 cu. in 
1195.582 
700.895 
680.436 
514.746 
991.546 
888.403 
628.039 
687.275 
254.719 
615.685 
544.627 
367.326 
465.458 
392.289 
344.669 
250.000 
454.082 
375.747 
409.458 
332.458 
407.550 
361.500 
383.071 
1.096 
1.011 
1.115 
1.092 
1.075 
Temperature 
49 deg.F. 
52 deg.F. 
48 deg.F 
46 deg. F. 
52 deg.F 
40deg.F 50 deg.F 
The following table shows the constituents of many of the Saratoga Spring waters 
* The Excelsior water was analyzed by the late B. L. Allen, M. D., of Saratoga Springs, 
CONSTITUENTS OF MINERAL SPRINGS. 240 
APPENDIX. 
Potassium Permanganate: Page 42, 59. 
Solutions of this substance are decomposed by paper, 
hence cannot be filtered; they should, therefore, be 
allowed to settle and then decanted; solutions of the per- 
manganate should be kept from the light. 
Nessler’s Solution: Page 48, 87. 
Dissolve 550 grains of potassium iodide in five fluid 
ounces of water; dissolve 220 grains of mercuric chloride 
in five fluid ounces of water; dissolve 900 grains of po- 
tassium hydrate in five fluid ounces of water; add the 
iodide solution to the chloride solution, then add the 
potassium hydrate solution; make up to twenty ounces 
of water, let settle, decant. 
Zinc Sulphide: Page 52, 99. 
When a compound of iron is present as an impurity 
in zinc the precipitate with ammonium sulphide may 
appear greenish-white in color. 
Processes of Manufacture, Equations, etc.: 
Oxygen: Heat potassium chlorate with ten per cent of 
manganese dioxide. KC103=KCl-j-03. 
Hydrogen: Action of zinc on dilute hydrochloric 
acid. Zn+(HCl)2=ZnCl2+H2. 
Hydrogen Peroxide: Action of carbonic acid on bar- 
ium peroxide suspended in water. Ba02-(-H20-|-C02= 
BaC03+H202. 
Nitrogen: Remove oxygen from confined air by 
burning phosphorus in it. 
Ammonia: Mix sal-ammoniac with calcium hydrate 
and heat. (NH4Cl)2+Ca(H0)2=CaCl2+(H20)2+(NH3)2. 
Laughing Gas: Heat ammonium nitrate. NH4N03= 
<H,0),+N,0. 
Nitric Acid: Decompose sodium nitrate by sulphuric 
acid. (NaN03)2+H2S04= (HN03)2+Na2S04. 
Carbon Dioxide: Lime burning. CaC03=CaO+ 
C02. APPENDIX. 
241 
Carbon Monoxide: Pass C02 over red-hot coal. C02 
+C=(CO), 
Sulphuric Acid: Pass vapors of sulphur dioxide, ni- 
tric acid and steam simultaneously into large leaden 
chambers, together with atmospheric air. S02+0+H20 
=H2so4. 
Sulphuretted Hydrogen: Act on ferrous sulphide 
with dilute sulphuric acid. FeS+H2S04=FeS02-f-H2S. 
Phosphorus: (a) Convert calcium phosphate into 
acid phosphate; (6) heat the acid phosphate forming the 
metaphosphate; (c) act on the metaphosphate with 
charcoal and sand at red heat, (a) Ca3(P04)2+(H2S04)2 
= CaH4(P04)2+(CaS04)2; (6) CaH4(P04)2=Ca(P03)2+ 
(H20)2; (c) [Ca(PO3)2]2+SiO2+10C = (CaSiO3)2+10CO 
+4P. 
Phosphoric Acids: Phosphoric oxide and water. P205 
+H.0=H,.P.0,= (HF01)a P205+(Ha0)3=H,P0i (ortho-, 
glacial). 
Hydrochloric Acid: Decompose chloride of sodium 
with sulphuric acid. NaCl+H2S04=HCl+NaHS04. 
Bromine: Treat magnesium bromide in mother 
liquor (remaining from evaporation of sea water) with 
chlorine. MgBr2+(Cl2)=MgCl2+Br2. 
Iodine: Wash vitrified ashes of sea weeds with water 
and treat mother liquor (remaining after evaporation, 
etc.) with manganese dioxide and hydrochloric acid. 
Potassium Iodide: Add iodine to solution of potas- 
sium hydrate till dark brown color no longer disappears. 
(KHO)6+ (I)6= (KI)5+KI03+(h20)3. 
Potassium Permanganate: Decompose the manga- 
nate with sulphuric acid. (K„Mn0,)„+(H,,S0,)9=Mn094- 
(K2S04)2+K2Mn208+(H20)2. 
Potassium Bichromate: Act on the chromate with 
sulphuric acid. (K2Cr04)2+H2S04=K2Cr207+K2S04+ 
HA 242 
APPENDIX. 
Sodium Carbonate: (a) Make the salt cake (sul- 
phate) from common salt and sulphuric acid; (6) mix 
the sulphate with coal and limestone and heat. (a) 
(NaCl)2+H2S04=(HCl)2+Na2S04; (6) Na2S04+4C + 
CaC03= CaS+Na2C03+(C0)4. 
Ammonium Chloride: Saturate liquor of gas-works 
with hydrochloric acid and evaporate. 
Ammonium Carbonate: The commercial article is 
obtained by subliming a mixture of the chloride and cal- 
cium carbonate. (CaC03)2+(NH4Cl)4=NH4HC03NH4N 
H2C02+(CaCl2)2+H20+NH3. 
Calcium Oxide (lime): Heat limestone. CaC03= 
CaO+C02. 
Chlorinated Lime (bleaching powder): Acton cal- 
cium hydrate with chlorine. [Ca(H0)2]24-Cl4==(H20)2+ 
Ca(ClO)2+CaCl2—chlorinated lime. 
Aluminum Chloride: Expose a heated mixture of 
the oxide and carbon to the action of chlorine. Al203-f- 
C,+C1,= (C0),+A12C1(. 
Iron: Heat the carbonate or oxide with coal, lime- 
stone and sand. Fe203+C3=(C0)3+Fe2; FeC03-j-C= 
C0+C02+Fe. 
Reduced Iron: Pass hydrogen gas over ferric oxide, 
heated in a glass tube. Fe203+H6=(H20)3-j-Fe2. 
Ferrous Sulphate: Dissolve iron in sulphuric acid, 
evaporate and crystallize. Fe+H2S04=H2-|-FeS04. 
Zinc Carbonate: Mix and boil solutions of equal 
quantities of zinc sulphate and sodium carbonate. (Zn 
SO,),+(Na2CO,)s+ 3H20 =(C02)3+ (Na2SO()6+(ZnCO,), 
[Zn(HO)2],. 
Bismuth Subnitrate: Decompose the nitrate with 
water. [Bi(N0,)]s+(H20),=(Bi0N0,H20)i+Bi(N0J)1+ 
(HNO,),. 
Mercuric Oxide (red): Heat mercuric nitrate. Hg 
(N0,)2=Hg0+(N02)2+0. APPENDIX. 
243 
Mercurous Chloride: Sublime a mixture of mercuric 
sulphate and mercury with sodium chloride. HgS04-f- 
Hg+(NaCl)2=Na2S04+Hg2Cl2. 
Mercuric Chloride: Mix mercuric sulphate with so- 
dium chloride and sublime. HgS04-f-(NaCl)2=Na2S04 
+HgCl2. 
Arsenious Oxide: Heat ores containing arsenic in a 
current of air. 
Arseniuretted Hydrogen: Bring an arsenical com- 
pound into contact with nascent hydrogen. As203+12H 
= (AsH3)2+(H20)3. 
Water of Crystallization: 
On page 32, 2, mention is made of the fact that water 
enters into the composition of many crystalline sub- 
stances. It is here called water of crystallization and 
is driven off on heating usually to 212 deg. F. The fol- 
lowing table shows how many molecules of water enter 
into the composition of certain compounds: 
Potassium carbonate (U. S. P.) (K2C03)2. 3H20 
Potassium sulphite K2S03. 2H20 
Sodium carbonate Na2C03. 10H2O 
Sodium sulphate Na2S04. 10H2O 
Sodium hyposulphite Na2S203. 5H20 
Sodium phosphate Na2HP04. 12H20 
Sodium borate Na2B4Or 10H2O 
Magnesium carbonate 4(MgC03). Mg2HO. 5H20 
Magnesium sulphate MgS04. 7H20 
Potassium, aluminium sulphate. . .K2S04,A123S04,24H20 
Ferric chloride Fe2Cl6. 12H20 
Ferrous sulphate FeS04. 7H20 
Manganous sulphate MnS04. 4H20 
Zinc sulphate ZnS04. 7H20 
Cupric sulphate CuS04. 5H20 
Bismuthyl nitrate Bi0N03. H20 244 
APPENDIX. 
Bismuthyl carbonate (Bi0)2C03. H20 
Mercuric sulphate (yellow subsulphate) . . . HgS04. 2HgO 
The figure in each case before the H20 shows how 
many molecules of water of crystallization enter into the 
compound: thus, ZnS04. 7HaO means that zinc sulphate 
has for its formula ZnS04, but in addition to this that 
there are seven molecules of water; the entire molecule 
of the compound then consists of one atom of zinc, one 
of sulphur, four of oxygen and seven molecules of water 
(or fourteen atoms of hydrogen and seven of oxygen), 
which latter may be expelled on heating leaving, ZnS04 
as a residue. 
Specific Gravities: 
The following tables show the specific gravity of many 
substances: 
SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF METALS AS 15.5 DEG. C. (60 DEG. f). 
Lithium 0.593 
Potassium 0.865 
Sodium 0.972 
Calcium 1.57 
Magnesium 1.75 
Strontium 2.54 
Aluminium 2.60 
Barium 4.00 
Arsenic 5.88 
Antimony 6.80 
Zinc 6.90 
Tin 7.29 
Iron 7.79 
Manganese 8.00 
Cobalt 8.54 
Molybdenum 8.63 
Cadmium 8.70 
Nickel 8.80 
Copper 8.96 
Bismuth 9.90 
Silver 10.50 
Lead 11.45 
Mercury 13.59 
Gold 19.50 
Platinum 21.50 
SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF LIQUIDS. 
Nitric acid 1.42 U. S. P. 
Hydrochloric acid 1.16 
Sulphuric acid 1.848 Pure. APPENDIX. 
245 
Ammonia 0.959 
stronger 0.900 
Bromine 2.99 
Sea water 1.026 
Carbon disulphide (at 32 deg. F.) 1.263 
SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF OXIDES. 
Arsenious 3.75 Transparent. 
Arsenious 3.65 Opaque. 
Alumina 4.00 
Caustic potash 2.1 
soda 2.0 
Calcium oxide 3.2 
hydrate 2.08 
Chromic 5.2 
Cuprous 5.8 
Mercuric .. 11.3 
SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF SALTS. 
Potash alum crystallized 1.73 
Silver nitrate 4.36 
Potassium bichromate 2.603 
chlorate 2.35 
carbonate 2.27 
chft>ride 1.95 
chromate 2.64 
ferrocyanide 1.83 
iodide 3.06 
sulphate 2.66 
Sodium carbonate (crystal) 1.45 
chloride 2.16 
sulphate (crystall) 1.5 
Calcium carbonate (arragonite) 2.9 
chloride (fused) 2.21 
phosphate 3.18 246 
APPENDIX. 
sulphate (gypsum) 2.33 
Mercurous chloride 7.2 
Mercuric chloride 5.42 
Arsenic sulphide (realgar) 3.55 
(orpiment) 3.48 
Solubilities: I am indebted to Prof. W. Simon for 
the following most excellent table: APPENDIX. 
247 
SYSTEMATICALLY ARRANGED TABLE SHOWING THE SOLUBILITY 
AND INSOLUBILITY OF INORGANIC SALTS AND 
The dark squares represent insoluble, the white soluble compounds. 
OXIDES IN WATER. 
r 
3 
to 
< 
I 
§ 
I 
Ctt 
-ca'd 
c 
c 
Grc 
3 
P 
a 
3 
rap* 
g 
5 
g 
*5. 
3 
1 
| 
A 
3 
3 
o 
*S 
rscn 
> 
3 
3 
3 
ic C 
> 
cT 
ro.u 
to 
3 
B 
© 
— 
to 
3 
3 
© 
£ 
£ 
P 
3 
© 
8 
g 
S’ 
I ID 
| Chromium. 
N 
3 
OUt) 
*3 
O 
| Aluminium 
k 
5* 
3 
to 
c 
0 
c 
3 
XT 
c3 
5’ 
3 
kXi 
artt 
r) 
2* 
r> 
i 
no 
s. 
> 
3 
3 
3 
3 
1 
cn 
| 
c 
3 
kali 
I 
i 
es. 
2 
l' 1 
_ 
Carbonate. 
’ 
_ 
- . 
_ 
■ 
Phosphate 
is 
A rscn late. 
t; 
* ■■ 
Arsenite. 
. 
. 
■ 
Oxiae. 
, 
1 
23* 
1 
. 
T 
Hydrate. 
1 
1 
.. 
Sulphide. 
g 
J 
* 
Iodide-. 
J 
Chloride. 
i| 
Sulphate. 
— 
Nitrate.. 
C 
Chlorate. 248 
APPENDIX. 
Platinic. 
Auric. 
Mercuric. 
Mercurous . 
Plumbic. 
Arsenic. 
Antimonic. 
Stannic. 
Stannous. 
Silver. 
Bismuth. 
Cupric. 
Cadmium. 
Ferric. 
Aluminum. 
Chromic. 
Cobaltic. 
Nickelic. 
Manganous. 
Zinc. 
Barium. 
Strontium. 
Calcium. 
Magnesium 
Sodium. 
Ammonium 
Potassium. 
Hydrogen. | 
Hydrate 
A 
A 
A 
A A (W)A-I A-I 
A 
A 
A A 
A 
A 
A A-I 
A 
A 
A 
A 
(W)(W)(W) A 
w 
W 
W 
w 
Nitrate 
W 
W 
W 
w w — — w 
— 
W 
Wr W 
W 
W 
W W 
W 
W 
W 
W 
w 
W 
W W 
w 
W 
w 
w 
Carbonate 
A 
A 
A A — — A 
A 
A 
A A 
A 
A 
— A 
A 
A 
A 
A 
A 
A 
A A 
w 
W 
w 
w 
Acetate 
W (W) W — — w 
W (W) w w 
W 
W 
W W 
W 
W 
W 
W 
W 
W 
W W 
w 
W 
w 
w 
Oxalate 
W 
A 
A A — A W 
A 
A 
A A 
A 
A 
A W 
A 
A 
A 
A 
A 
A 
A A 
w 
w 
w 
w 
Cyanide 
(A) W 
w 
W A — A — 
— 
(A) A A (W) 
W 
— A 
A 
A 
A 
A 
W 
W 
W W 
w 
w 
w 
w 
Chloride 
W 
w 
w 
A (W) WWW 
w 
I 
w w 
W 
w 
W W 
W 
W 
W 
W 
w 
W 
w w 
w 
w 
w 
w 
Bromide 
w 
w rw) a (w) w w w 
w 
I 
W W 
W 
w 
W \V 
W 
W 
W 
W 
w 
W 
w w 
w 
w 
w 
w 
Iodide 
A 
A 
(A) A (W) (W) A (W) (W) I 
A — 
W 
w 
— w 
W 
w 
w 
W 
w 
W 
w w 
w 
w 
w 
w 
Fluoride 
W 
w 
w 
A A W W (W) 
w 
W 
W(W)(W) W A-I W (W)(W) 
A (W) 
A 
A 
A-I A 
w 
w 
w 
w 
Sulphide 
A 
A 
A 
A A A A A 
A 
A 
A A 
A 
A 
A A 
A 
A 
A 
A 
w 
W 
W W 
w 
w 
w 
w 
Sulphite 
W 
— 
A 
A A — A W 
(W) A 
A W (W)(W) A W 
A 
A 
a (w; 
1 A 
A 
W W 
w 
w 
w 
w 
Sulphate 
w 
w 
W 
W A-I — W W 
W (W) W W (W) W 
w w 
W 
W 
w 
W 
I 
I (W) w 
w 
w 
w 
w 
— 
A 
A 
A A W W A 
A 
A 
A A 
A 
A 
A A 
A 
A 
A 
A 
A 
A 
A A 
w 
w 
w 
w 
Borate 
— 
— 
rw; 
1 - (W) 
(W)(W)(W)(W;(W)(W)(W)(W)(W)W (W)(W)(W)(W)(W)(W) w 
w 
w 
w 
Silicate 
— 
— 
— 
— 
— A 
— 
A 
A-I — 
— 
— 
A 
A 
A 
A 
A-I A-I 
w 
— 
WfWII 
Arsenite 
— 
— 
A 
A A — W A 
A 
A 
— A 
— 
A 
A 
A 
A 
1 
fW) (W 
) A — 
w 
w 
A 
w 
Chromate 
A 
— 
A 
A A — A A 
A 
A 
A(W) 
i A 
A 
— A 
(W) W 
W 
W 
A (W)(W) W 
w 
w 
w 
w 
W, means soluble in water. 
A, freely soluble in acids. 
I 
insoluble in water and acids. 
(W), hardly soluble in water. (A), 
hardly soluble in acids. 
Barker arranges the solubilities in the following table: 
SOLUBILITIES OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS. APPENDIX. 
249 
Notes on Organic Chemistry: 
Prof. Simon having kindly given me permission, I 
take occasion to insert the following epitome of organic 
theory abridged from his “Manual of Chemistry.” I 
have condensed it greatly on account of lack of space, 
and the student will do well to consult the original, 
which is probably the best arrangement of this very dif- 
cult subject ever offered to a beginner. 
Organic Theory: 
1. Organic Chemistry is the chemistry of carbon com- 
pounds. 
2. The elements contained by organic compounds are, 
besides carbon, chiefly hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, 
sometimes sulphur and phosphorus. 
3. The general properties of organic compounds are 
as follows: Combustible (except C02 and its salts); solids 
usually when carbon atoms predominate in their molecule; 
liquids or gaseous when hydrogen predominates; easily 
volatilized gases or liquids when a small number of atoms 
in the molecule; liquids of high boiling points or solids 
when number of atoms in the molecule is large. 
4. Quantitative analysis more important than quali- 
tative to establish identity of organic compound. If 
the elements of an organic substance are determined, 
the analysis is called ultimate or elementary ; if different 
organic substances when mixed together are separated, 
the analysis is called proximate. 
5. The presence of carbon in a combustible form will 
prove a compound to be organic; hence, if a substance 
burns with generation of carbon dioxide (shown by pass- 
ing the gas through lime-water), the organic nature of 
this substance is established. The presence of hydrogen 
may be shown by allowing the gaseous products of com- 
bustion to pass through a cool glass tube, when drops of 
water will be deposited. To show presence of nitrogen, 250 
APPENDIX. 
heat with a mixture of two parts calcium hydrate to one 
part sodium hydrate (soda lime); the nitrogen is con- 
verted into ammonia, recognized by its odor and action 
on paper moistened with copper sulphate solution. 
6. A chemical formula is called empirical when it 
gives the simplest expression of the composition of a 
substance; this formula, however, does not necessarily 
denote the actual number of atoms in the molecule, 
which may be two or three times the number given in 
the empirical formula; thus, the empirical formula of 
acetic acid is CH20, but the actual molecular formula con- 
tains twice the number of atoms, or C2H402. Besides 
empirical and molecular formulae, others called rational, 
constitutional, structural or graphic are used. The mo- 
lecular formula of acetic acid is C2H402, but the formula 
HC2H302 shows that acetic acid, like nitric acid HNOa, is 
monobasic, containing one atom of hydrogen, which can 
be replaced by an atom of a metal; hence HC2H302 is 
called a constitutional formula. 
7. Radicles or residues. These are expressions for 
unsaturated groups of atoms known to enter as a whole 
into different compounds, but having no separate exist- 
ence. Water H20 is a saturated compound that is the 
one atom of oxygen—which is a dyad, and may be said 
therefore to have two points of attraction—combines 
with two of hydrogen; and therefore has both its points 
of attraction satisfied. If now one atom of H be taken 
from H20, there is left the group of atoms HO, which is 
called a radicle, as it consists of an atom of oxygen, in 
which but one point of attraction is actually saturated, 
the second one not being provided for; moreover, this 
group HO occurs in many compounds — as, for example, 
in the hydrates, as potassium hydrate KHO, etc. The 
equivalence of radicles depends upon the number of 
points of attraction unprovided for: carbon requires four APPENDIX. 
251 
atoms of hydrogen to provide for its points of attraction; 
therefore, CH, would be a monad radicle, CH, a dyad, 
CH a triad. 
8. Chains. The equivalence of an atom of an ele- 
ment may be indicated graphically. Thus the fact that 
oxygen is a dyad, or has two points of attraction, may be 
shown as follows: —O—. Two atoms of oxygen may 
be written —O — O—. The twQ interior bonds have 
united to form one, or have satisfied each other, while the 
two exterior ones are left unsaturated. The expression 
chain then, denotes a series of atoms, like the two of 
oxygen above, held together in such a manner that affini- 
ties are left unsaturated. The atoms of the series must 
have a greater equivalence than one, i. e., must be dyad, 
etc. The formula for hydrogen peroxide is H202; this 
may be represented by taking the oxygen chain shown 
above and saturating each free affinity with an atom of 
hydrogen, thus: H — O — O—H. The existence of such 
an enormous number of carbon compounds is greatly due 
to the property of carbon to form these chains (Simon). 
Carbon is a tetrad, hence two atoms would form a chain as 
I I 
follows: —C—C—; each atom has four bonds, one of which 
' I I 
unites with one of the other, leaving in this particular 
chain six free affinities. Three atoms of carbon would be: 
III till 
— C —C —C—; four, — C — C — C — C—, etc., etc. 
Ill I I I I- 
The free affinities may be saturated with various atoms 
or radicles, hence the almost unlimited number of possi- 
ble combinations. Atoms are not always united by one 
affinity. When they are united by two the expression 
for two atoms of carbon would be = C ; if by 252 
APPENDIX. 
three —C=_C—. In the so-called closed chain of CL we 
D 
have the atoms united partially by double and partially 
by single union: 
c c 
i ii 
i 
Benzine C6HU would then be represented as follows: 
H , 
“ c -C c-u 
I II 
H 
I 
H 
It is easy to see from these two diagrams the origin of 
the term skeleton, which is sometimes used instead of 
chain. 
9. Homologous series. Any series of organic com- 
pounds the members of which preceding or following 
each other differ by CH2 is called a homologous series. 
10. Types. Most substances may be classified under 
the five following types: 
I. 
Hydrogen. 
II. 
Water. 
III. 
Ammonia. 
IY. 
Methane. 
/H 
N—H 
\H 
H 
I /H 
C 
I \H 
H 
H—H 
H—O—H APPENDIX. 
253 
Y. 
Phosphoric chloride. 
Cl 
I /Cl 
P—Cl 
I \C1 
Cl 
Almost any compound may be classed in one of these 
types by replacing the constituents of these types by 
other elements or radicles of the same equivalence. 
10. Substitution. Replacement of an atom or group 
of atoms by other atoms or groups: C6H6+HN03 = 
C6H5N024-H20. Here for one atom of hydrogen in ben- 
zine (C6H6) has been substituted the group N02. 
11. Derivatives. Chloroform CHC13 is a derivative of 
marsh gas CHt because it may be obtained from the lat 
ter by replacement of three atoms of hydrogen by three 
of chlorine. The term is applied to bodies derived from 
others by some kind of decomposition, generally by sub- 
stitution. 
12. Isomerism. Two or more substances having the 
same elements in the same proportions by weight, or 
having the same percentage composition, and yet, being 
different bodies with different properties are called 
isomeric bodies. When two or more substances have the 
same molecular formulae they are said to be metameric 
with one another; thus CN2H40 is either urea or am- 
monium cyanate; hence, urea is said to be metameric 
with ammonium cyanate. Sometimes structural formula 
will serve to distinguish two substances metameric with 
each other When a substance contains some multiple 
of the number of each of the atoms contained in the 
molecule of the other it is said to be polymeric with it; 
thus acetic acid, C2H402, is polymeric with grape-sugar, 
C6H1206. 254 
APPENDIX. 
13. Decomposition. A molecule may undergo various 
changes; its atoms may re-arrange themselves; it may 
split up into two or more molecules; two molecules may 
unite to form one; atoms may be removed from it with- 
out replacement by other atoms; atoms may be removed 
and replaced by others. Organic bodies decompose 
readily under the influence of heat or chemical agents. 
Heat will volatilize some organic bodies without decom- 
position; whilst others are decomposed by it with gen- 
eration of volatile products. Dry or destructive distilla- 
tion is the term applied to the process of heating non- 
volatile organic substances in such a way that the oxygen 
of the air has no access and to such an extent that de- 
composition takes place. 
14. Combustion and decay. In common combustion, 
provided an excess of atmospheric air be present, the 
carbon of an organic substance is converted into carbon 
dioxide, the hydrogen into water, sulphur and phospho- 
rus into sulphuric and phosphoric acids, and the nitrogen 
set free. In decay, which is slow oxidation, the com- 
pounds mentioned above are finally produced, but many 
intermediate products are also generated. Alcohol when 
burned forms carbon dioxide and water; exposed to the 
air, it undergoes slow oxidation, forming aldehyde first, 
then acetic acid. 
15. Fermentation and putrefaction. An organic sub- 
stance, under favorable temperature and during the pres- 
ence of moisture and of a substance termed a ferment, 
undergoes a peculiar kind of decomposition, during 
which its molecule is split up into two or more molecules 
of a less complicated composition. 
16. Difference between fermentation and putrefaction. 
The term fermentation is used in those cases where the 
decomposing substance contains carbon, hydrogen and 
oxygen only. “When it contains these three, and also APPENDIX. 
255 
nitrogen or sulphur, or both, the term putrefaction is 
used. Sugar, C6H1206, ferments: albuminous substances, 
containing nitrogen and sulphur, putrefy, and the nitro- 
gen and sulphur being evolved as ammonia and sul- 
phuretted hydrogen, an offensive odor is noticed. Fer- 
ments are prevented from action by the presence of the 
so-called antiseptic agents (carbolic acid, salicylic acid, 
salt, etc.) If air be excluded, ferments are excluded, 
inasmuch as the atmospheric air is tilled with millions of 
minute germs of organic nature, which germs may act 
as ferments when in contact with organic matter under 
otherwise favorable conditions. By enclosing substances 
in air-tight vessels which when tilled are heated suffi- 
ciently to destroy any germs which may have been pres- 
ent, the action of ferments is counteracted (Simon). 
17. Action of various agents on organic matter. Chlo- 
rine and bromine usually remove or replace the hydrogen 
of an organic substance. Sometimes they combine di- 
rectly with it, and sometimes, in presence of water, act 
as oxidizing agents by combining with the hydrogen of 
the water and liberating oxygen. Nitric acid either 
forms (i) salts with organic matter (ii), oxidizes it or (iii) 
substitutes N02 (nitryl) for hydrogen. In the latter cases 
the additional quantity of oxygen added renders the 
compounds highly combustible, or even explosive. Sub- 
stances having a great affinity for water, as, for example, 
sulphuric acid, act on many organic substances by re- 
moving hydrogen and oxygen, leaving dark or black 
compounds consisting mainly of carbon. Alkalies may 
combine directly, form salts, form soaps, oxidize, or 
evolve ammonia from nitrogenous compounds. Reducing 
agents, especially nascent hydrogen, either combine di- 
rectly, remove oxygen or replace oxygen. 
Molecular Weights of Organic Substances: 
Marsh-gas 16.0 256 
APPENDIX. 
Nitro-benzole 123.0 
Alcohol 46.0 
Wood-spirit 32.0 
Fusel-oil 88.0 
Glycerine 92.0 
Lactose 360.0 
Sucrose 342.0 
Starch 162.0 
Carbolic acid 94.0 
Acetic acid 60.0 
Acetate of lead 378.5 
copper 199.2 
Benzoic acid 122.0 
Lactic acid 90.0 
Salicylic acid 138.0 
Salicylate of sodium 338.0 
Oxalic acid 126.0 
Tannic acid..' 322.0 
Tartaric acid 150.0 
Tartar emetic 664.0 
Cream of tartar 188.0 
Rochelle salt 282.0 
Citric acid 210.0 
Ether 74.0 
Chloroform 119.2 
Iodoform 392.8 
Hydrocyanic acid 27.0 
Urea 60.0 
Morphine 303.9 
sulphate 758.0 
hydrochlorate 355.9 
acetate 363.0 
Strychnine 334.0 
sulphate 892.0 
hydrochlorate 794.4 APPENDIX. 
257 
nitrate 397.0 
Quinine 378.0 
sulphate ' 872.0 
hydrochlorate .396.4 
Atropine 289.0 
sulphate 676.0 
Caffeine 212.0 
Equations, Processes of Manufacture of Organic 
Substances: 
Alcohol: Ferment solution of grape sugar. C6H1206— 
(C02)2+(C2HsH0)2. 
Chloroform: Act on alcohol with bleaching-powder 
and calcium hydrate. (C2H60)4+(CaCl202)8=(CHCl3)2-{- 
[Ca(CH02)2]2+(CaCl2)5-f-(H20)8. Alcohol and calcium 
hypochlorite=chloroform, calcium formate, calcium chlor- 
ide and water. 
Tartaric Acid: Boil calcium tartrate with sulphuric 
acid. CaC4H406+H2S04=H2C4H406+CaS04. Calcium 
tartrate and sulphuric acid=tartaric acid and calcium 
sulphate. 
Tartar Emetic: Dissolve freshly-prepared antimoni- 
ous oxide in a solution of potassium acid tartrate. KHC4 
H(0,)2+Sb20,= (KSb0C1Ht05)2+H20. 
Oil of Bitter Almonds: Action of a ferment called 
emulsine on a glucoside called amygdaline in presence 
of water. C2#H2IN011+(H20)2=(CIH120,)2+HCN+CI 
HeO. Amygdaline -)- water=glucose -)- hydrocyanic acid 
-|-oil of bitter almonds. 
Salicylic Acid: Decompose sodium salicylate with 
HC1. 
Ether: Act on alcohol with sulphuric acid, (a) C2H5 
H0+H2S04=C2H5HS04+H20; (6) C2H5HS04+C2H5H0 
=H2S04+(C2H5)20. Alcohol+sulphuric acid=ethyl- 
sulphuric acid+water; ethylsulphuric acid-)-alcohol= 
sulphuric acid-f-ether. 258 
APPENDIX. 
Amyl Nitrite: Distill equal volumes of pure pentyl 
alcohol (fusel oil) and nitric acid until the temperature 
rises to 212° F. Purify distillate by agitating with so- 
lution of potassium carbonate and hydrate, separating 
the upper layer of the liquid and redistilling it; the 
liquid passing over between 204.8° F. and 212° is amyl 
nitrite—a clear, pale yellowish liquid of an ethereal 
fruity odor, aromatic taste, and neutral or slightly acid 
reaction. Sp. gr. 0.872. Boiling point, 204.8° F. 
Soap: Boil a fat with an alkaline hydroxide. C3H5 
(011Hs,Os),+(NaH0),=(NaC„H,1O>),+CIH!(HO),. 
Pyroxyline: Act on cellulose with nitric acid of vari- 
ous strengths. C6H10O5+HNO3=C6H9(NO2)O5-|-H2O. 
Cellulose+nitric acid=mono-nitro cellulose and water. 
CtH„Os + (HNO,)s = C,H,(NO!)A + (HA,=pyroxyline 
and water. Pyroxyline dissolved in a mixture of ether 
and alcohol forms a solution known as collodion. C6H10 
°s+ (hN03)3= C6H7(N02)305+ (H20)s= gun-cotton and 
water. 
Hydrocyanic Acid: Distill potassium ferrocyanide 
with dilute sulphuric acid. (K4FeCy0)2+(H„SO4)6=K2Fe2 
Cy6+(KHS04)6+(HCy)6. 
Formulae of Many Organic Compounds with Wa- 
ter of Crystallization: 
Chloral hydrate C2HC130H20 
Sodium acetate .• NaC2H3023H20 
L ead acetate Pb2(C2H302)3H20 
Cupric acetate Cu2(C2H302)H20 
Potassium tartrate 2(K2C4H406)H20 
Potassium sodium tartrate KNaC4H4064H20 
Antimony potassium tartrate 2(KSb0C4H406)H20 
Ferric citrate Fe22(C6H307)6H20 
F errous lactate Fe2(C3H503)3H20 
Sodium sulphocarbolate NaC6H5S042H20 
Sodium salicylate 2(NaC7H503)H20 APPENDIX. 
259 
Milk sugar C12H220nH20 
Brucine C23H26N2044H20 
Caffeine . . C8H10N4O2H2O 
Morphine C17H19N03H20 
acetate C17H19N02HC2H3023H20 
hydrochlorate C17H19N03HC13H20 
sulphate (CJ7H19N03) JLS0.5IL0 
Quinine C20H24N2O23H2O 
sulphate [C20H24N2O2)2H2SO47H2O 
acid sulphate (C20H24N2O2)H2SO47H2O 
hydrochlorate C20H24N2O2HC12H2O 
hydrobromate C20H24N2O2HBr2H2O 
valerianate C20H24N2O2C5H10O2H2O 
Strychnine C21H22N202 
sulphate (C21H22N202)2H2S047H20 
Atropine C17H23N03 
sulphate (C17H23N03)2H2S04 
Potassium ferrocyanide K4FeCy63H20 260 
APPENDIX. 
Color--Reactions of Oils: 
Oil. 
Before Stirring. 
After Stirring. 
Vegetable Oils: 
Almond oil 
.. Colorless or yellow. 
Dark yellow, olive or brown. 
Castor oil 
.. Yellow to pale brown. 
Nearly colorless or pale brown. 
Cotton-seed oil, crude. .. 
.. Very bright red. 
Dark red, nearly black. 
Cotton-seed oil, refined.. 
.. Reddish brown. 
Dark reddish brown. 
Earth-nut oil 
.. Yellow to orange. 
Reddish brown. 
Linseed oil, raw 
. .Hard brown or greenish-brown clot.Mottled, dark brown. 
Linseed oil, boiled 
.. Hard brown clot. 
Mottled, dark brown. 
Mustard oil 
.. Dark yellow and orange streaks. 
Reddish brown. 
Niger-seed oil 
. .Yellow with brown clot. 
Reddish or greenish brown. 
Olive oil 
.. Yellow, green or pale brown. 
Light brown or olive green. 
Poppy-seed oil 
.. Yel’w spot, with orange strks or rgs.Olive or reddish brown. 
Rape oil, crude 
.. Green, with brown rings. 
Bright green turning brownish. 
Rape oil, refined 
. .Yellow, with red or brown rings. 
Brown. 
Animal Oils: 
Cod-liver oil 
.. Dark red spot, with purple streaks. Purple changing to dark brown. 
Lard oil 
.. Grnish yel’w, or br’n’h with brn strks.Mottled or dirty brown. 
Seal oil 
.. Orange spot, with purple streaks. 
Bright red changing to mottled brown. 
Sperm oil 
.. Pure brn spot, with faint yellow rg.Purple changing to reddish or drk brn. 
Tallow oil 
. .Yellow spot, with pink streaks. 
Orange-red. 
Whale oil 
.. Red turning violet. 
Brownish red, turning brown. 
Hydrocarbon Oils: 
Petroleum lubricating oil.Brown. 
Dark brown with blue fluorescence. 
Shale lubricating oil.... 
. .Dark reddish brown. 
Reddish brown with blue fluorescence. 
Rosin oil, brown 
, .. Bright mahogany brown. 
Dark brown with purple fluorescence. 
Rosin oil, pale 
. .Mahogany brown. 
Red brown with purple fluorescence. 
One or Two Drops of Strong Sulphuric Acid to Twenty of the Oil. APPENDIX. 
261 
The above is from Allen, and shows the effect pro- 
duced on placing a drop or two of sulphuric acid in the 
center of about twenty drops of oil, and observing the 
color both before and after stirring. It is very desir- 
able to examine specimens of oils of known purity side 
by side with the suspected oil, instead of trusting too 
implicitly to the reactions described in the table. The 
colors produced by different samples of the same kind of 
oil are liable to considerable variation. 
Table of Reactions of the More Important 
Sugars: 
1. Moisten the solid sugar with water and stir in the 
cold with concentrated sulphuric acid (1.85 sp. gr). 
Glucoses—Not affected when pure. Cane sugar—Chars. 
2. Triturate the solid sugar with caustic soda, or boil 
with a 3 per cent, solution of caustic soda for one minute. 
Glucoses—Brown coloration. Cane sugar—Not affected. 
Milk sugar—Not affected. 
3. To the neutral solution add Fehling’s solution and 
heat to the boiling point. Glucoses—Deep blue liquid, 
giving yellow or red precipitate on heating. Cane sugar 
—Deep blue liquid unchanged by heating. Milk sugar 
—Deep blue liquid, giving yellow or red precipitate on 
heating. 
4. To a few drops of Fehling’s solution add caustic 
soda and ammonia, heat to boiling, and add the liquid 
to be tested for sugar. Glucoses—The solution is de- 
colorized. Cane sugar—No change. Milk sugar—The 
solution is decolorized. 
5. Boil the solution for two minutes with 1 c.c. Glu- 
coses—Red precipitate of cuprous oxide. Cane sugar— 
No change. Milk sugar—No change. 
Composition of Cereals, Foods, etc.: 
The average composition of cereals, according to Gra 
ham, is as follows: 262 
APPENDIX. 
Old 
Wheat 
Bar 
ley. 
Oats. 
Rye. 
Corn. 
Rice. 
Water 
11 
1 
12 
0 
14 
2 
14.3 
11 
5 
10.8 
Starch 
62 
3 
52 
7 
56 
1 
54.9 
54 
8 
78.8 
Fat 
1 
2 
2 
6 
4 
6 
2.0 
4 
7 
0.1 
Cellulose 
8 
3 
11 
5 
1 
0 
6.4 
14 
9 
0.2 
Gum and sugar 
3 
8 
4 
2 
5 
7 
11.3 
2 
9 
1.6 
Albuminoids 
10 
9 
13 
2 
16 
0 
8.8 
8 
9 
7.2 
Ash 
1 
6 
2 
8 
2 
2 
1.8 
1 
6 
0.9 
Loss, etc 
0 
8 
0. 
2 
0 
2 
0 5 
0 
7 
0.4 
100 
0 
100. 
0 
100 
0 
100.0 
100 
0 
100.0 
Church gives the following table: 
Buck- 
wheat. 
Peas. 
Haricot 
Beans. 
Lentels. 
Earth- 
nuts. 
Shelled. 
13.4 
14.3 
14.0 
14.5 
7.5 
Albuminoids, etc.. 
15.2 
22.4 
23.0 
24.0 
24.5 
Starch, etc 
63.6 
51.3 
52.3 
49.0 
11.7 
Fat 
3.4 
2.5 
2.3 
2.6 
50.0 
Cellulose & lignose 
2.1 
6.5 
5.5 
6.9 
4.5 
Mineral matter... 
2.3 
3.0 
2.9 
3.0 
1.8 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
Water 
Pota- 
toes. 
White 
Tur- 
nips. 
Car- 
rots. 
Beetroot 
(red). 
Yam. 
75.0 
2.3 
92.8 
0.5 
89.0 
0.5 
4.5 
82.0 
0.4 
10.0 
79.6 
2.2 
116.3 
0.5 
0.9 
1.5 
Albuminoids 
15.4 
2.0 
0.3 
1.0 
1.0 
Dextrin, gum and Pectose 
4.0 
0.1 
1.8 
0.8 
0.5 
0.2 
4.3 
1.0 
3.4 
0.1 
3.0 
0.9 
Cellulose and lignose APPENDIX. 
263 
Rich, albuminous foods, according to Ranke, Payen, 
Letheby, etc.: 
Nitrogenous matter 
Fat 
Salines, etc 
Water 
19.3 
3.6 
5.1 
72.0 
Ln. Raw 
Meat. 
14.8 
29.8 
4.4 
51.0 
Fat Raw 
Meat. 
27.6 
15.45 
2.95 
54.00 
Roast 
Meat. 
18.3 
4.9 
4.8 
72.0 
Lean 
Mutton 
12.4 
81.1 
3.5 
53.0 
Fat Mut- 
ton. 
16.5 
15.8 
4.7 
63.0 
Veal. 
9.8 
48.9 
2.3 
39.0 
Fat Pork 
d 
rrt O 
1 S 
8.8 
73.3 
2.9 
15.0 
18.1 
2.9 
1.0 
78.0 
White 
Fish. 
16.1 
5.5 
1.4 
77.0 
Salmon. 
14.01 
1.51 
4.09 
80.39 
Oysters. 
14.0 
10.5 
1.5 
74.0 
Eggs. APPENDIX. 
Composition of beef, veal and pork. (Moleschott.) 
- 
1 Soluble 
| alb’m’n 
| and he- 
| matin. 
Mysoin, 
etc. 
Gelatins1 
I 
Fats 
Extrac- 1 
tives. 
Kreatin. 
43 
a> 
< 
Water. 
Beef 
2.25 
15.21 
3.21 
2.87 
1.39 
0.07 
1.6 
73.39 
73.75 
Veal 
Pork 
2.27 
1.63 
14.36 
15.50 
5.01 
4.08 
2.56 
5.73 
1.27 
1.29 
0.77 
1.11 
70.66 
The yolk of an egg as compared with the white is as 
follows: 
Nitrogenous 
Constituents. 
Fat. 
Salines. 
Water. 
oik .... 
White ... 
16.0 per cent. 
20.4 “ 
30 per cent. 
1.3 per cent. 
1.6 “ 
52 per cent. 
78 “ 
Analysis of bread and biscuit: 
Flour 
Bread. 
Biscuit. 
51.0 
73 4 
Nitrogenous constituents 
8.1 
15 6 
1.6 
1 3 
2.3 
1 7 
37.0 
8.0 
Analysis of fruits. (Fresenius): 
A’pl’s. 
White. 
Pears. 
Sweet 
red. 
Green 
Gages. 
Cher’s 
Sweet 
red 
Gr’pes 
White. 
Goose- 
berr's. 
Lrg rd 
Straw- 
ber- 
ries. 
Sugar 
7.58 
7.94 
3.4 
13.11 
13.78 
8.06 
7.57 
Free acid 
1.04 
Trace. 
0.87 
0.35 
1.02 
1.35 
1.13 
Albuminous sub 
Pectous subs. 
0.22 
0.24 
0.40 
0.90 
0.83 
0.44 
0.36 
and pectose. 
3.88 
5.10 
12.52 
3.73 
1.43 
1.26 
1.12 
Ash 
0.44 
0.28 
0.39 
0.60 
0.36 
0.31 
0.48 
Insol’ble matter 
1.8 
3.51 
3.89 
5.9 
2.59 
2.99 
1.96 
Water 
85.04 
83.01 
79.72 
75.37 
79.99 
85.56 
87.47 APPENDIX. 
265 
One pound of mixed vegetables contains about 420 
grains of carbon and 14 grains of nitrogen. 
Potatoes compared with bread are as follows: One 
pound of bread is equal to two and one-half pounds of 
potato, as far as carbon is concerned, and to three and 
one-half pounds in nitrogen. 
Tea cannot be regarded as a nutriment in the sense of 
supplying material to maintain structure and generate 
heat; it rather tends to excite vital activity, particularly 
acting as a respiratory stimulant. With sugar and milk 
it becomes a useful food. 
Analysis of Tea. (Peligot.) 
Per cent. 
Theine 2.0 to 3.0 
Casein 15.0 
Gam 18.0 
Tannin 26.25 
Starch 0.75 
Per cent. 
Fat 4.0 
Vegetable fibre... 20.0 
Minerals 5.0 
Water 5.0 
Coffee also excites the nervous system, but not to the 
same degree as tea, at the same time somewhat depress- 
ing the respiratory function. It exerts a marked sus- 
taining influence under fatigue and privation. Accord- 
ing to Roux, the theories regarding its diminution of 
tissue waste, etc., are doubtful. 
Vegetables may be classified as follows: 
1. Those rich in albumen and nitrogen: Cabbage, 
asparagus, cress, mushrooms and truffles. These are all 
very nutritious. 
2. Those rich in mucilage and salts: White beet, 
lettuce and endive. 
3. Those rich in acids: Sorrel, tomato, rhubarb, as- 
paragus. They are useful as excitants of digestion. 
4. Those containing little or no starch: Lettuce, en- 
dive, spinach, asparagus, artichoke, leeks, white onions 
and parsnips. 
5. Those rich in sugar: Beetroots, Jerusalem arti- 
chokes, carrots, ripe fruits. 266 
APPENDIX. 
Fruits may be classified as follows: 
1. Those containing much sugar: Pears, apples, 
peaches, apricots, prunes, melons, oranges, strawberries, 
figs, grapes, etc. When ripe, easy of digestion, and 
usually contain such vegetable acids as malic, citric, tar- 
taric, etc. 
2. Acid fruits: Lemon, gooseberry, tamarind, etc. 
3. Starchy fruits: Chestnuts, bread fruit. 
4. Oily fruits: Nuts, sweet almonds. 
As to alcohol, it must be said that the weight of evi- 
dence is in favor of the theory that it acts more or less 
as an aliment. In large amount it lowers the tempera- 
ture, particularly when abnormal, as in fevers. Given 
in a state of health, it tends to diminish muscular power 
on the one hand, but on the other its effect may be to in- 
crease it by improving the tone of the system through 
the appetite and digestion of food. Wines and beer 
taken in moderate quantity diminish slightly the carbonic 
acid exhaled, but favor the secretion of the gastric and 
pancreatic juices, and there is a gentle excitation of the 
nerve centers, and at the same time an undoubted addi- 
tion is made in the form of salts, fats, glycerine and al- 
buminoids—beer not only being stimulating and tonic, 
but also nutritious. Of alcoholic drinks, beers occupy 
the first place as foods; then come cider and perry, and 
then wines, and, according to E. Smith, as they sustain 
and increase vital action they must be regarded as true 
foods. According to Yoit, also, alcohol must be regarded 
as a food, as under its influence fewer substances are 
decomposed in the body.* 
Summary in Regard to Foods: 
Nitrogenous foods: Required for the construction and 
maintenance of the tissues. They supply the nitrogenous 
* These statements regarding alcohol are from no less an authority than 
T. Cranstoun Charles,,M.D. APPENDIX. 
267 
waste, form one of the great sources of fat in the econ- 
omy, and excite the metabolic activity of the body. 
Fats and carbohydrates (starch, sugar, dextrin, etc.): 
May to a certain extent replace the nitrogenous foods. 
Evolve energy most largely and efficiently, and of high 
dietetic value as force-producers; are the ultimate, 
though not necessarily the direct, sources of heat and of 
muscular energy. 
Water: Required to maintain the due bulk of the 
blood and other animal tissues; useful in mastication 
and digestion, and in keeping up the constant outpour- 
ings and reabsorptions of great volumes of liquid in the 
alimentary canal and in the tissues generally, by which 
the body fluids, and particularly the blood, are main- 
tained in normal condition. It keeps different sub- 
stances in solution or suspension in the body, and serves 
as a vehicle to carry away waste products, and at the 
same time regulates the temperature of the body by its 
evaporation at the surface. 
Salts: Required to maintain the constitution of the 
tissues, and are essential in keeping up the diffusion 
streams in the organism. Special uses: Hydrochloric 
acid of gastric juice formed at expense of chlorides; al- 
kaline carbonates and alkaline salts of vegetable acids 
neutralize the sulphuric and phosphoric acids formed in 
the system by the oxidation of the sulphur and phos- 
phorus of the proteids; the salts of sodium probably 
play a similar role to the latter. (Charles.) 
Alkaloids, Glucosides, etc.: 
The following table shows important alkaloids: 
Liquid and Volatile: 
Conine, C8H15N Conium maculatum 
Nicotine, Tobacco plant APPENDIX. 
Solid and Fixed Alkaloids: 
Morphine, C17H19N03, 
10.00 per cent, in opium on an average 
Codeine, C18H21N03, 
0.25 per cent, in opium on an average 
Thebaine, C19,H21N03, 
0.15 per cent, in opium on an average 
Papaverine, C21H21N04, 
1.00 per cent, in opium on an average 
Narcotine, C22H23N07, 
1.30 per cent, in opium on an average 
Narceine, C^H^NOg, 
0.70 per cent, in opium on an average 
Quinine, C20H24N2O2+3H2O In cinchona bark 
Cinchonidine, C19H22N20 In cinchona bark 
Quinidine, isomer to quinine In cinchona bark 
Cinchonidine, isomer to quinine In cinchona bark 
Strychnine, C21H22N202 In nux vomica 
Brucine, C23H26N204-f-4H20 In nux vomica 
Solanine, C43H17N016 In solanacese 
Atropine, C17H23N03 In solanacese 
Hyoscyamine, C15,H23N03 In solanacese 
Yeratrine, C32H50NO9? Veratrums 
Aconitine, C30H47NO7 ? Aconitum napellus 
Colchicine, C17H23N06 Colchicum autumnale 
Berberine, C20H17NO4 Berberis vulgaris 
Piperine, C17H19N03 Pepper 
Emetine, C30H46N2O7 Ipecacuanha root 
Sinapine, C16H23N05 White mustard seed 
Physostigmine, C30H21N3O4 Calabar bean 
Pilocarpine, CnH16N202 Pilocarpus 
Caffeine, C8H10N4O2+H2O Coffee, tea 
Theobromine, C7H8N402 Seeds of theobroma cacao 
Opianyl, C10H]0O4 Opium, formerly called meconine 
Jervine, C26H37N03 Yeratrum album or viride APPENDIX. 
269 
Gelsemine, C12HuN02 Gelsemium sempervirens 
Cytisine, C20H27N3O Cytisus laburnum 
Apomorphine, C17H17N02 Derived from morphine 
Cocaine, C17H21N04 Erythroxylon coca 
Homatropin Artificial alkaloid 
Kairin Artificial alkaloid 
Antipyrin, C20H18N4O2 Artificial alkaloid 
Quinolin Artificial alkaloid 
Thallin Artificial alkaloid 
Aspidospermine Quebracho 
Hydrastine Hydrastis 
Hyoscine, C17H23N03 Hyoscyamus 
Muscarine 
Napelline Aconitum napellns 
Pelletierine Pomegranate bark 
Sanguinarine Sanguinaria 
Doliarine Ficus doliaria 
Doundakine Doundake (west coast of Africa) 
Delphinine Aconitnm napellus 
The following table shows important glucosides: 
Amygdalin, C20H27NOn Bitter almonds, etc. 
Arbutin, C25H34014 Arbutus uva ursa 
Cathartic acid, C180H192N4SO82 ? Senna 
Carminic acid Cochineal 
Colocynthin, C58H84023 ? Colocynthis 
Digitalin, C27H45015 ? Digitalis 
Elaterin, C26H2805 Cucumber fruit 
Gentiopicrin, C20H30O12 Root of gentiana 
Glyceyerhizin, C24H3609 Licorice root 
Helleborin, C36H4206 Root of Hellebore 
Indican ? Indigo plant 
Jalapin, C31H50O16 Jalan resin 
Myronic acid, C10H19NS2O10 Seeds of black mustard 
Picrotoxin, C9H10O4 Cocculus indicus 
Salicin, C13H1807 Bark of willow 270 
APPENDIX. 
Santonin, C15H1803 Worm-seed 
Scammonin, C34H560,6 Kesin scammony 
Solanin ? Solanacese 
Tannins, C14H10O9 Many barks, leaves, etc. 
Adonidin Adonis vernalis 
Cannabin Cannabis indica 
Convallamarin Convallaria majolis 
Populin 
Phlorizin 
Esculin 
Quercitrin 
The following table shows many other active princi- 
ples, neutral principles, etc. :* 
Agaricin White agaric, Boletus laricis 
Cotoin Coto bark 
Papain Papaw juice 
Papayotin Papaw juice 
Paracotoin Coto bark 
Piscidin erythrina 
Taraxacin Dandelion 
Sclerotic acid Ergot 
Podophyllotoxin Podophyllum peltatum 
Glycyphyilin, C26HU0128H20 Smilax glycyphylla 
Asebotoxin Andromeda japonica 
Asebotin Andromeda japonica 
Chrysarobin (chrysophanic acid) Goa powder 
Eclectic physicians have brought into use a line of 
preparations called “ liesinoids.” These consist of pre- 
cipitates in the form of powder obtained by mixing a 
strong alcoholic tincture of any given plant or part there- 
of with three or four times its bulk of water. Some of 
the more important are: 
* Many of these are as yet really unclassified. Some may be split up into 
several principles. APPENDIX. 
271 
Apocynin Apocynum cannabinum 
Baptisin Baptisia tinctoria 
Caulophyllin Caulophyllum thalictroides 
Euonymin Euonymus atropurpureus 
Helonin Helonias dioica 
Irisin Iris versicolor 
Leptandrin Leptandra virginica 
Macrotin Cimicifuga racemosa 
Podophyllin Podophyllum peltatum 
Many of these eclectic preparations have the same 
name, or nearly so, as the alkaloids, and serious errors 
are likely to follow in consequence; the alkaloids are now 
spelled with an “e” at the end in all cases; thus, aconi- 
tine is the alkaloid, aconitin being the name of the eclec- 
tic “ resinoid.” The resinoids are different in action and 
dose from the alkaloids. 
Cocaine and its Hydrochlorate: 
Cocaine, the alkaloid of erythroxylon coca, Lam., was 
discovered by Niemann in 1860, and afterward studied by 
W. Lossen (1862), who assigned to it the formula C17 
h91no4. 
Niemann prepared cocaine by exhausting coca leaves 
with 85 per cent, alcohol, containing one-fiftieth of sul 
phuric acid, supersaturating the alcoholic solution with 
lime, then neutralizing carefully with diluted sulphuric 
acid, separating the precipitated sulphate of calcium, and 
distilling off the alcohol. The residuary liquid is super- 
saturated with soda and then shaken repeatedly with 
ether, which dissolves out the cocaine. On evaporating 
the ethereal solution, cocaine remains behind in an amor- 
phous condition, but soon becomes crystalline. It is 
somewhat purified by washing with a little strong alco- 
hol (?), and then recrystallized from highly dilute alco- 
hol. 272 
APPENDIX. 
Lossen extracts coca leaves with rain-water, precipi- 
tates with acetate of lead, removes the excess of the lat- 
ter remaining in solution by means of sodium sulphate, 
filters and adds soda to the filtrate in slight excess. On 
shaking this mixture with ether, only cocaine passes into 
solution, while hygrin remains in the alkaline liquid. 
The crude cocaine obtained after the evaporation of the 
ether is dissolved in very dilute hydrochloric acid, and 
this solution dialyzed, the cocaine passing through parch- 
ment paper, while most of the accompanying coloring 
matter remains behind. From the dialyzed acid solu- 
tion the alkaloid is then precipitated with soda, and ob- 
tained pure by several times recrystallizing it from alco- 
hol. 
Lossen obtained, in the most favorable case, 4 parts 
per 1,000, and from poor material, only 1.6 parts per 
1,000. 
Cocaine crystallizes in four or six sided monoclinic 
prisms. It is soluble at 12° C. in 704 parts of water; 
easily soluble in alcohol, and still more so in ether. It 
melts near 92°. 
From a dilute aqueous solution of hydrochlorate of 
cocaine, the alkaloid is precipitated by caustic alkalies 
and their carbonates, also by ammonia and ammonium 
carbonate, though the latter cause a considerable portion 
to be retained in solution. Bicarbonate of sodium and 
potassium yield a precipitate only in its concentrated 
solution. Sulphocyanide of potassium renders its solu- 
tion but slightly turbid. So also tannic acid, provided 
free hydrochloric acid is present. Stannous chloride 
causes a white precipitate soluble in much nitric acid; 
mercuric chloride, a copious precipitate rapidly becoming 
flocculent, soluble in alcohol and hydrochloric acid; 
picric acid, a pulverulent, yellow precipitate soon becom- 
ing resinous; phosphomolybdic acid, a yellowish white APPENDIX. 
273 
floccnlent precipitate; iodine water, or iodized iodide of 
potassium, a kermes-brown precipitate. 
Dilute acids do not alter cocaine, but concentrated 
acids (sulphuric, etc.) change it into ecgonin, benzoic 
acid, and methyl alcohol, or rather the ether of the lat- 
ter. Ecgonin is a product of the decomposition of co- 
caine, and not a natural constituent of coca leaves. 
Cocaine combines easily with dilute acids, forming 
easily crystallizable salts, which are soluble in alcohol, 
but insoluble in ether, have a bitter taste, and leave a 
transient sensation of insensibility upon the tongue. 
Hydrochlorate of cocaine, C17H21N04HC1, separates 
from its aqueous solution in short transparent prismatic 
crystals which are permanent in the air. 
Acetic acid dissolves cocaine readily, but on evapora- 
tion the base separates again in crystals. Niemann took 
these for the acetate. 
Nitrate of cocaine crystallizes with great difficulty. 
Neutral sulphate of cocaine is a transparent gummy 
mass, becoming only slowly crystalline. 
Cocaine is accompanied, in the coca leaves, by a vola- 
tile and liquid alkaloid, which remains behind when the 
aqueous extract, supersaturated with soda, is shaken 
with ether. It may be separated by distilling the aque- 
ous liquid, or by distilling the leaves with water. It has 
an odor resembling that of trimethylamine, has a bitter 
taste, and an alkaline reaction, but is not poisonous. 
New Remedies: Besides the hydrochlorate, or muriate, 
as it is also called, various other salts of the alkaloid are 
now used as the citrate, hydrobromate, oleate and salicy 
late. The crystallized hydrochlorate has given the best 
satisfaction, although the crystallized hydrobromate is 
highly lauded. 
Detection of Impurities and Adulterations in 
Food, Drugs, etc.: 274 
APPENDIX. 
This is a subject of great importance and cannot be 
fairly treated in so small a volume as this. The reader 
is referred to Hassall and to Blyth; also to the manuals 
of Attfield, Simon and to the larger works on chemistry. A 
few simple tests which have recently come under the ob- 
servation of the author are as follows: 
To Distinguish Artificial from Genuine Butter: Mr. 
John Horsely, F. C. S., in the London Chemical News, 
gives this method: “Have ready two small but wide- 
mouthed glass test-tubes, about four inches high, with 
feet attached. Into one put a piece of butterine or oleo- 
margarine (about the size of a hazel-nut), and cork this 
tube; into the other put a similar-sized piece of pure 
butter, and cork that tube. Next take one in each hand 
at the bottom; in ten minutes the butterine melts into a 
clear oily fluid by the mere heat of the blood (98° F.). 
Pure butter takes twice as long to melt as butterine, and 
even then is not so clear and oily as butterine, which is 
a noteworthy difference between them. This is the phy- 
sical test. For the chemical test, after the tubes have 
stood to cool for a few minutes, pour on ether to about 
one third of the tube, and cork well. Agitate the tubes 
—one in each hand—clasping them well. The butterine 
readily dissolves into a clear liquor, which the addition 
thereto of twenty or thirty drops of spirit of wine does 
not disturb or precipitate; but a similar experiment with 
pure butter produces a voluminous white precipitate. 
Hereby we can easily distinguish one from the other. 
Even butter adulterated with a portion of oleomargarine 
may be detected by a precipitate being formed.” 
Santonin, according to Dr. Hager, is sometimes adul- 
terated with stearic acid. This may be detected by heat- 
ing some of the crystals on paper to 100° C. If a grease 
spot results, the santonin is adulterated with this or APPENDIX. 
275 
some other fatty acid. Santonin itself will not melt be- 
low 196° C. 
Detection of Tartaric Acid in Citric Acid: Yulpius 
dissolves five-tenths of a gram of the sample in question 
in ten grams of distilled water and adds five drops of the 
solution, drop by drop, to fifteen grams of lime-water. 
If the citric acid contains mere traces of tartaric acid, in 
a few moments there is produced a distinct turbidity, 
which increases on adding more of the acid solution and 
stirring. In this manner one per cent of tartaric acid 
can be detected. M. Push puts one gram of the sample, 
ground up, in a dry test-tube, along with ten grams of 
pure, colorless, sulphuric acid, and suspends the tube in 
a beaker containing water, which is kept at a tempera- 
ture close upon boiling. If the citric acid is pure, the 
liquid takes and retains a lemon-yellow color. But if 
only one-half per cent of tartaric acid is present, the 
mixture becomes brown in twenty-five to thirty minutes. 
Testing Beeswax: When the wax is chewed, it should 
have no disagreeable taste, and must not stick to the 
teeth. In an adulterated wax, the nature of the foreign 
material can generally be detected by the taste; the ad- 
dition of fat can generally be readily detected. If it 
sticks to the teeth, the presence of rosin may be assumed. 
A simple method for detecting the presence of fat in 
wax consists in melting it, and placing a drop on a piece 
of woolen cloth. After it is perfectly cold and solidified, 
a few drops of thirty-three per cent alcohol are poured 
on, and the cloth is rubbed between the hands. The 
wax will be converted into dust, and will easily separate 
from the cloth, if it contains no fat, and will leave no 
stain; when it contains fat it will leave grease spots. In 
examining wax candles they should be broken to see 
whether the interior is of the same material as the sur- 276 
APPENDIX. 
face; because adulterations of this kind occur quite fre- 
quently. 
Alum, in Flour or in Bread: On a portion of adul- 
terated flour being placed in a small quantity of chloro- 
form the flour floats, while the alum or other mineral 
matter sinks to the bottom. In a similar way alum in 
bread may be instantly detected by placing a small piece 
of the suspected loaf in a solution of logwood and car- 
bonate of ammonia; if alum be present, the bread will 
turn blue. 
To Distinguish Genuine Cod-liver Oil from 
Other Liver Oils: 
Pour ten or fifteen drops of the respective oils on 
watch glasses, then slowly pour in from the side two or 
three drops of fuming nitric acid, sp. gr. 1.500, when 
the several oils will exhibit the following reactions: 
1. Genuine cod-liver oil (from Gadus Morrhua) turns 
red at the point of contact ; when afterward stirred with 
a glass-rod it becomes fiery rose-red, soon passing over 
into pure lemon-yellow. 
2. Coalfish oil (from Gadus Carbonarius) turns in- 
tensely blue at the point of contact; when stirred, it 
turns brown and remains so for two or three hours, when 
it finally passes likewise into a more or less pure yellow. 
3. Japanese cod-liver oil behaves like the preceding, 
except that red streaks are sometimes observed along 
with the blue ones on the addition of nitric acid. 
4. Seal oil at first shows no change of color and be- 
comes brown only after some time. 
[A liver oil may be told from a non-liver oil by the 
color-reaction for biliary acids.] 
Mixtures of genuine cod-liver oil with the other liver 
oils may be told by this reaction with fuming nitric acid. 
For complete detection of adulterations in cod-liver oil, APPENDIX. 
277 
see American Druggist (April, 1885), translation of arti- 
cle by Hager. 
To Detect Aloes in Beer: 
H. Borntrager, in the Zeit. f. Anal. Chem., proposes a 
method of detection. Add to the suspected beer a 
double volume of benzin, shake, let it settle, decant the 
benzin, and add a few drops of ammonia. If aloes are 
present a violet-red color will be developed. 
To Detect Soda in Milk: 
Add three or four c.c. of tannin solution to about fif- 
teen c.c. of (alkaline) milk. A green color will appear 
after eight to twelve hours if soda is present. Dilute 
acetic acid will then turn the color to an unstable red. 
To Tell Cotton-seed Oil from Olive Oil: 
The Italian government has ordered the custom-house 
officers to use the following test for detecting cotton-seed 
oil in olive oil: Two cubic centimetres of pure nitric 
acid are to be mixed with five cubic centimetres of the 
oil. A piece of pure copper, in form of a wire, is then 
introduced, and the whole stirred with a glass rod. If 
any cotton-seed oil was present, the. liquid becomes red 
in the course of half an hour. 
Tests for Adulterated Sugar: 
Casamajor suggests that a sample of the suspected 
sugar be placed in a beaker-glass or teacup and an equal 
quantity of sugar known to be pure in a similar vessel. 
On adding a little water to each and placing the vessel 
in hot water the adulterated sugar will melt much sooner 
than the other and appear more like molasses. On al- 
lowing the two solutions to cool, the pure cane sugar will 
become solid again, while the adulterated article will re- 
main a syrup. In a sample sent to him to test he found 
that about 20 per cent of crystalline glucose had been 
added. The form of the crystals in the anhydrous glu- 
cose were, he said, easily distinguishable from either 
cane sugar or ordinary hydrated glucose by means of 278 
APPENDIX. 
the microscope. The quantity can only be determined 
by optical means. 
Testing Water for Industrial Purposes: 
To know whether water is hard or soft, dissolve a lit- 
tle white soap in alcohol, and add a few drops of water 
under investigation. If the alcohol turns milky, the wa- 
ter is hard; if either unaltered or simply cloudy, it is 
soft. 
To detect a copper percentage, add a little filing dust 
of soft iron to the water, leave them in for a few min- 
utes, and add a few drops of sal ammoniac. A blue col- 
orization betrays the presence of copper. 
For detecting carbonic acid, a small quantity of water 
is mixed with a like quantity of lime water. If carbonic 
acid is present the fluid turns milky at once. Hydro- 
chloric acid causes the turbidity to disappear. 
Sulphur combinations are detected by adding a little 
water to the mercury in the bottle; this is closed and 
left to stand for a few hours. If the mercury assumes a 
darker surface, and upon shaking, separates into gray 
powder, it is a sign that the water contains sulphur com- 
binations. 
Dissolved pure lime is proven by adding one or two 
crystals of oxalic acid to the water. A milky precipitate 
betrays the presence of lime. 
Sulphate of lime (gypsum) is recognized by the white 
precipitate caused by chloride of barium in the solution. 
The precipitate is not redissolved by nitric acid. 
Alkalies and alkaline earths are detected as follows: 
Blue litmus paper is colored feebly red in dilute vinegar, 
and dipped in the corresponding water. If the former 
blue color is restored, the water is alkaline. 
An iron percentage is recognized by a few drops of 
nutgall decoction, which are added to the water. If iron 
is present, the water assumes an inky gray to black APPENDIX. 
279 
color. Also, one drop of solution of ferroeyanide of 
potassium colors ferruginous water blue. 
To detect magnesia, the water is to be heated to boil- 
ing, and the point of a knife full of carbonate of am- 
monia and a little phosphate of soda are added. If the 
magnesia is present, it is precipitated. 
Acids are ascertained by dipping a small piece of lit- 
mus paper in the water. A red colorization betrays 
their presence. (Industrial Record.) 
Detection of Watered Milk: 
It is an exceedingly simple matter for a chemist to de- 
termine the exact quantity of water in milk; but since 
all milk contains a very large quantity of water, and 
that a varying quantity, the chief difficulty has been in 
distinguishing between the water naturally there and 
the water added fraudulently. Uffelmann attempts to 
solve this problem by looking for those substances which 
are always present in well-water, and never in pure milk, 
such as ammonia and nitrous and nitric acids. For this 
purpose he first precipitates the caseine from 350 c.c. of 
milk with dilute acetic acid, and filters it out. He then 
adds three drops of hydrochloric acid to the first filtrate, 
a, heats to boiling, and when cold filters it. Fifty c.c. 
of this second filtrate, b, is rendered slightly alkaline 
with caustic potash, filtered, and the last filtrate, c, is 
distilled. The distillate is tested for ammonia with Ness- 
ler’s solution. Another 50 c.c. of above filtrate, d, is 
tested directly for ammonia (after adding caustic soda in 
a solution of the pure carbonate) with the same reagent. 
In this way the author succeeded in detecting 0.007 
milligram of ammonia. About 150 c.c. of filtrate a is 
boiled and filtered. Each 30 c. c. of filtrate is tested for 
nitrites with diamido-benzol and with iodide of cadmium 
and starch. The remainder is tested for nitrate as fol- 
lows: A piece of diphenylamine as large as a lentil is 280 
APPENDIX. 
put in a white porcelain dish, and dissolved in \\ c.c. of 
concentrated sulphuric acid, and three or four drops of 
filtrate a run into it. If nitric acid is present, the blue 
streaks will appear sooner or later, according as there 
are more or less nitrates present. If it does not make 
its appearance at all, the filtrate a is evaporated to one- 
third of its volume, filtered, and tested again in the same 
manner. If the results are still negative, it is again 
evaporated and tested. If the tests show the presence 
of all three, nitrous and nitric acids and ammonia, it is 
proof that water has been added; but, if the tests give 
negative results, it is not proof positive that no water has 
been added. When water has been added, these tests 
give no indication of the amount added unless the qual- 
ity of the water is likewise known; but it does prove 
that it is adulterated. 
Testing Gold: 
For testing gold make up a liquid consisting of nitric 
acid, 1 ounce; water, 2 drachms; muriatic acid, \ scruple. 
Mix the ingredients well and keep the solution in a bot- 
tle with a glass stopper. With a glass rod which had 
been dipped in the mixture touch the metal and watch 
the action. If no effect is produced on the metal it is 
either gold or gold plated. If the “gold” is very low or 
less than 9 karat the acid will boil green, and base metal 
is at once detected by the mark left by the acid. To test 
silver apply a drop of a solution of nitric acid, 3 ounces; 
water, 1 ounce, and bichromate of potash, \ ounce, and 
wipe off the drop immediately with a sponge and water. 
If a blood-red mark results the metal is silver or the ar- 
ticle is silver plated. Part II. 
Notes on the Chemistry of Certain New Reme- 
dies.* 
Urethan: This substance was described by Kobart; 
its formula is NH2C02C2H.; it was first used medically 
by Yon Jaksch, of Vienna. It is a hypnotic. "White 
crystals readily soluble in water. 
Terpine: The hydrate of terpine, C10H16H2O-}-Aq, is 
now used in pulmonary troubles, Bright’s disease, etc. 
It is made from oil of turpentine, alcohol and nitric acid. 
White crystals soluble in 200 parts cold water, 22 of 
boiling water, 7 of alcohol, very soluble in ether and in 
fatty oils. In poisonous doses it produces rapid and 
irregular breathing, great bodily heat and excitement 
and violent vomiting of blood. Albuminuria and hsema- 
turia are also among its symptoms. The phosphates in 
the urine are increased by large doses. Terpinol is 
produced by the action of sulphuric and hydrochloric 
acids on terpine. Terebene, C10H16, is produced by the 
action of sulphuric acid on oil of turpentine. 
Iodol: This substance, now a rival of iodoform, is 
obtained from pyrrhol (a product of the destructive dis- 
tillation of proteids). Iodol is properly tetra-iodo-pyrr- 
hol; it is a powerful antiseptic, having an anaesthetic 
action and promoting the granulation of wounds. It is 
a brownish crystalline powder, not decomposing at 212° 
F., but when heated above this point evolves vapors of 
iodine. It is soluble in ether, chloroform and alcohol, 
but nearly insoluble in water. It contains nearly 90 per 
cent, of iodine, 7 per cent, less than iodoform. 
Sparteine: Sparteine is an alkaloid obtained from a 
kind of furze named Sparticum scoparium. Germain 
S6e uses the sulphate of this alkaloid in heart disease. 
* Kindly supplied me by Mr. J. M. Baker, of Gale k Blocki, Chicago. 
281 282 
APPENDIX. 
Arsenite of Bromine: This compound of bromine 
and arsenic is now used in Diabetes Mellitus. White, 
very deliquescent, readily soluble in water. 
Brucine: This alkaloid, though long known, has been 
therapeutically neglected until of late. It is now found 
to be much less poisonous than strychnine, and if a pre- 
scription fall into the hands of an inexperienced or care- 
less dispenser, the danger of making a death-dealing 
mistake is very greatly obviated if brucine rather than 
strychnine be prescribed. 
Ergotinine: This substance is the alkaloidal active 
principle of ergot. So sensitive is this alkaloid, that it 
is necessary to prepare it in solution rendered antiseptic, 
preferably, by bichloride of mercury (1 in 5,000). 
Cannabin tannate: A salt derived from Cannabis In- 
dica, useful as a hypnotic. Not a narcotic. Amorphous 
brown powder, soluble in water. 
Ichthyol: A substance obtained from a bituminous rock 
found in the Tyrol. The ichthyol sulphonate of sodium 
is preferable to ichthyol in skin diseases. 
Mercury tannate: This salt of mercury is now used 
by the Germans in the treatment of syphilis. In appear- 
ance it somewhat resembles iron filings; sparingly solu- 
ble in water. 
Papayotin: This substance, prepared from the juice 
of the Carica papaya, has the remarkable property of 
digesting fibrin, and in a much higher degree than pep- 
sin. It will peptonize 200 times its own weight of 
pressed blood fibrin. 
Pelletierine tannate: Pelletierine, C16H15N02, is, as has 
already been stated (p. 269), an alkaloid from the bark 
of the pomegranate root. In the form of tannate it is 
now used as a tsenifuge; yellow crystalline powder sol- 
uble in water. 
Hippurates of lithium, etc.: Hippuric acid has been APPENDIX. 
283 
described (p. 79). Its salts are called hippurates. The 
hippurates of sodium, calcium and lithium are now used 
in urinary troubles. 
Cocaine: manufacture: The process of preparing 
cocaine from coca leaves is given in full in Squibb’s 
Ephemeris (Yol. II., No. 7), and in the Druggists' Cir- 
cular of May, 1885. It is too long for insertion here. 
Pyridine: C5H5N. This alkaloid is formed in the dry 
distillation of nitrogenous organic compounds, such as 
bones, coal, some of the alkaloids, etc. It is always 
present in tobacco smoke, especially in that of cigar- 
ettes. Colorless liquid, having an odor aptly described 
as that of the breath of a man who, after drinking cheap 
whisky, has eaten plentifully of onions. It is readily 
soluble in water. It has been used by inhalation in the 
treatment of asthma. 
Disinfectants, Germicides,* Antiseptics, Deo- 
dorizers : 
The presence of odors and organized “germs” in the 
air, often require the use of one of the above agents. 
Disinfectants are a class of bodies which are supposed 
to destroy the germs, and thus prevent them from caus- 
ing their specific action either upon the human body or 
in decomposable organic bodies or solutions. 
The most efficient of these is heat. Organized germs 
may be filtered from the air by passing it through cotton 
wool; or they may be removed by inclosing the air in an 
air-tight box or chamber, the insides of which are moist- 
ened with glycerine. (Tyndal.) Ozone, chlorine, bro- 
mine, iodine, sulphurous oxide, mercuric, zinc, alumin- 
ium, magnesium and calcium chlorides, potassium chlo- 
rate, potassium permanganate, carbolic, boric, cresylic 
* A germicide is an agent which has the power of killing the germs, and 
thus preventing their growth. A disinfectant destroys the infectious proper- 
ties of a septic matter, whether this be due to germs or some other agent. 284 
APPENDIX. 
and sulphuric acids, thymol, menthol, camphor, etc., are 
among the disinfectants most used. 
Antiseptics are agents which retard or entirely pre- 
vent putrefaction or growth of microscopic germs and 
organisms. While disinfectants destroy the cause of in- 
fection, antiseptics prevent the development of these 
causes. Low temperature retards putrefaction, and is, 
therefore, an antiseptic agent. These two terms are fre- 
quently used interchangeably. 
Asepsis is a condition of entire absence of any germs 
or cause of infection. Deodorizers are bodies used to 
destroy offensive odors. They may be either solid, liquid 
or gaseous. Solids—dry earth, lime, charcoal, ferrous 
sulphate, carbolates of calcium, sodium and magnesium. 
Liquids—solutions of plumbic nitrate (Ledoyen’s fluid), 
zinc chloride (Burnett’s fluid), potassium or sodium per- 
manganate (Condy’s fluid), a mixture of copper and zinc 
sulphates (Lanande’s disinfectant), solutions of ferric 
chloride, of ferrous sulphate, hypochlorites, etc., are 
among the best known. Gases—pure air, ozone, chlo- 
rine, bromine, and sulphurous oxide are those most effec- 
tive. Fumigations with tar, herbs, and various aromatic 
substances, only disguise the offensive odors, but do not 
destroy them. 
The ordinary offensive odors are due to hydric sul- 
phide (H2S), ammonium sulphhydrate (NH4HS), phos- 
phoric hydride (PH3), and complex ammonium com- 
pounds. Chlorine, ozone and nitrous oxides will destroy 
these gases by oxidation, and thus destroy the odor. 
It should be remembered that these odors, in them- 
selves, may not be in any degree injurious to health, 
when in small quantity, but they serve to warn us of the 
presence of other products of putrefaction which accom- 
pany them, and which are injurious. The fact that effi- 
cient disinfection of the air can prevent the spread of APPENDIX. 
285 
the contagion of disease is well known. Chlorine and 
sulphurous oxide are the two agents most in use, and of 
these the former is very much to be preferred, but the 
latter is used for furnished rooms, because of its less 
destructive action on articles exposed to it. 
It is doubtful whether organized germs can be de- 
stroyed in the air by any disinfectants, except in tightly 
closed rooms. The attempt to disinfect the air of rooms 
with the various so-called “disinfectants” of the market 
is worse than useless. It engenders a feeling of security 
where there is none. These floating germs can certainly 
stand as much, and in most cases more, than man, and 
therefore no room can be disinfected while it is occupied 
by human beings. Bartley has found, by experiment, 
that most of the ordinary antiseptics, when diffused 
through the air of an ordinary room, are almost without 
action on putrefactive bacteria, unless the quantity be 
great enough to make the air irrespirable. 
The following table shows the amount of water it is 
necessary to add to one part of the substance named, 
which barely permits the development of bacteria in 
meat infusions, according to M. Jalan de la Croix: 
Water, 
Parts. 
Water, 
Parts. 
Alcohol 30 
Chloroform 134 
Borax 107 
Eucalyptol 308 
Phenol (Carbolic acid)... 1,002 
Thymol 2,229 
Potass, permanganate ... 3,041 
Picric acid 3,041 
Borated sodium salicylate 3,377 
Benzoic acid 4,020 
1 Part. 
Oil of mustard 5,734 
Sulphurous acid 7,534 
Aluminium acetate 7,535 
Salicylic acid 7,677 
Mercuric chloride 8,358 
Calcium hypochlorite ... 13,092 
Sulphuric acid 16,782 
Iodine 20,020 
Bromine 20,875 
Chlorine 34,509 
1 Part. 
(Bartley.) 286 
APPENDIX. 
List of Commercial Disinfectants: (Sternberg.) 
5.1 E 
Ph 
NAME. 
a ** 
° O £ 
fH 'a 
a> te S 
• So 
a*** 
o| £ 
pH 
v £.2 
Ph 
Little’s Soluble Phenyle 
2 
i 
Labarraque’s Solution (U. S. P.) 
7 
5 
Liquor Zinci Chloridi (Squibb’s) 
10 
7 
Feuchtwagner’s Disinfectant 
10 
8 
Labarraque’s Sol. (Frere, Paris) 
15 
10 
Phenol Sodique 
15 
10 
Platt’s Chlorides 
20 
15 
Gerondin Disinfectant 
*25 
15 
Williamson’s Sanitary Fluid 
25 
20 
Bromo-chloralum 
25 
20 
Blackman’s Disinfectant 
30 
20 
Squibb’s Impure Carbolic Acid 
50 
Bouchardat’s Disinfectant 
50 
Phenol Sodique (Paris) 
50 
Listerine 
50 
Hypochlorite of Sodium or Calcium. Available Chlorine 
0.25 
Metric System—French and American Meas- 
ures : 
MEASURES OF LENGTH. 
1 millimeter= 0.001 meter = 0.0394 inch. 
1 centimeter = 0.01 meter = 0.3937 inch. 
1 decimeter = 0.1 meter = 3.9371 inches. 
1 meter = 39.3708 inches. 
1 decameter = 10 meters = 32.8089 feet. 
1 hectometer= 100 meters = 328.089 feet. 
1 kilometer =1000 meters = 0.6214 mile. 
MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 
1 milliliter = 1 c.c.= 0.001 liter = 0.0021 U. S. 
pint. 
1 centiliter = 10 c.c. = 0.01 liter = 0.0211 U. S. 
pint. 
1 deciliter = 100 c.c. = 0.1 liter = 0.2113 U. S. 
pint. APPENDIX. 
287 
1 liter =1000 c.c. = = 1.0567 U. S. 
quart. 
1 decaliter = 10 litres = 2.6418 U. S. 
gallons. 
1 hectoliter = 100 litres = 26.418 U. S. 
gallons. 
1 kiloliter =1000 litres=264.18 U. S. 
gallons. 
1 milligram = 0.001 gram = 0.015 grain Troy. 
1 centigram = 0.01 gram = 0.154 grain Troy. 
1 decigram = 0.1 gram = 1.543 grain Troy. 
1 gram = 15.432 grains Troy. 
1 decagram = 10 grams = 154.324 grains Troy. 
1 hectogram = 100 grams = 0.268 pound Troy. 
1 kilogram =1000 grams= 2.679 pounds Troy. 
WEIGHTS. 
COMMEKCIAL WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF THE U. S. A. 
1 pound avoirdupois = 16 ounces. 
1 ounce=437.5 grains. 
1 gallon=231 cubic inches. 
1 gallon=4 quarts=8 pints. 
1 pint of water weighs 7291.2 grains at a temperature 
of 15.6° C. 
TROY WEIGHT. 
1 drachm = 60 grains. 
1 ounce=8 drachms = 480 grains. 
(Simon.) 
Prescription Writing by the Metric System :* 
For the purpose of prescription writing the following 
statement of the relative values of apothecaries’ and 
metric weights will be found sufficient. Approximate 
rather than exact equivalents should be used: 
* From a circular sent me by Parke, Davis & Co. 288 
APPENDIX 
Grammes. Grains. Grammes 
1 = 15.432 grains 1-64= .001 
2 = 30.864 grains (3 ss) 1-32= .002 
4= 61.728 grains (3 i) 1-16= .004 
32 = 493.824 grains (| j) 1-8 = .008 
C.c. 1-6 = .011 
1= 16.231m 1-4= .016 
2= 32.462 m (f 3 s) <...1-2 = .032 
4= 65.925 m (f 3 i) 3-4 = .048 
32 = 519.397 m (f 1 j) 1 = .065 
Si = 1-30 
3 i = 4.00 
1 i =32.00 
To reduce grains to grammes, divide by 10 and sub- 
stract from the quotient one-third. Or divide by 3 and 
multiply by .2. 
To reduce drachms to grammes, multiply by 4. 
To reduce ounces to grammes, multiply by 32. 
EXAMPLE. 
Gm. C.c. 
II Ferri pyrophosphatis 3 ii 8. 
Quininse sulphatis 3 iiss 10. 
Strychninse sulphatis gr. j .065 
Morphinse sulphatis gr. jv 26 
Syrupi zingiberis § iijss 112. 
Aquse font. qs. ad. § viij 255. 
M. Sig.—A teaspoonful (4 grammes) 3 time a day. 
Liquids should be prescribed in fluid grams or cubic 
centimeters, one fluid ounce being considered, for con- 
venience, equal to 32 fluid grams. This is better than 
to attempt to prescribe fluids by weight. It is better to 
write the fluids in a separate column. 
Thermometry: 
In Fahrenheit’s thermometer the freezing point is 32° 
and the boiling 212°, the number of intervening degrees APPENDIX. 
289 
being 180. In the Centigrade or Celsius thermometer 
the freezing point is placed at zero, and the boiling point 
at 100°, the number of intervening degrees being 100. 
It will thus be seen that one degree in the Centigrade 
or Celsius scale is equal to 1.8° of Fahrenheit. The 
product of the degrees of the former, multiplied by 1.8, 
will give the number of degrees above the freezing point 
of Fahrenheit. By adding 32° to this product we get 
the equivalent in Fahrenheit. Thus 30° C. x 1.8—(-32 = 
86° F. 
The number of degrees between any point on the 
Fahrenheit scale and the freezing point,divided by 1.8 (or 
multiplied by 0.55), will give the equivalent in C. Thus 
100° F.— C. 290 
APPENDIX. 
Cent. 
Fahr. 
Cent. 
Fahr. 
Cent. 
Fahr. 
Cent. 
Fahr. 
— 40 
— 40.0 
— 5 + 23.0 
+ 30 + 86.0 
+ 65 + 149.0 
39 
38.2 
4 
24.8 
31 
87.8 
66 
150.8 
38 
36.4 
3 
26.6 
32 
89.6 
67 
152.6 
37 
34.6 
2 
28.4 
33 
91.4 
68 
154.4 
36 
32.8 
— 1 
30.2 
34 
93.2 
69 
156.2 
35 
31.0 
0 
32.0 
35 
95.0 
70 
158.0 
34 
29.2 
+ 1 
33.8 
36 
96.8 
71 
159.8 
33 
27.4 
2 
35.6 
37 
98.6 
72 
161.6 
32 
25.6 
3 
37.4 
38 
100.4 
73 
163.4 
31 
23.8 
4 
39.2 
39 
102.2 
74 
165.2 
30 
22.0 
5 
41.0 
40 
104.0 
75 
167.0 
29 
20.2 
6 
42.8 
41 
105.8 
76 
168.8 
28 
18.4 
7 
44.6 
42 
107.6 
77 
170.6 
27 
16.6 
8 
46.4 
43 
109.4 
78 
172.4 
26 
14.8 
9 
48.2 
44 
111.2 
79 
174.2 
25 
13.0 
10 
50.0 
45 
113.0 
80 
176.0 
24 
11.2 
11 
51.8 
46 
114.8 
81 
177.8 
23 
9.4 
12 
53.6 
47 
116.6 
82 
179.6 
22 
7.6 
13 
55.4 
48 
118.4 
83 
181.4 
21 
5.8 
14 
57.2 
49 
120.2 
84 
183.2 
20 
4.0 
15 
59.0 
50 
122.0 
85 
185.0 
19 
2.2 
16 
60.8 
51 
123.8 
86 
186.8 
18 
— 0.4 
17 
62.6 
52 
125.6 
87 
188.6 
17 + 1.4 
18 
64.4 
53 
127.4 
88 
190.4 
16 
3.2 
19 
66.2 
54 
129.2 
89 
192.2 
15 
5.0 
20 
68.0 
55 
131.0 
90 
194.0 
14 
6.8 
21 
69.8 
56 
132.8 
91 
195.8 
13 
8.6 
22 
71.6 
57 
134.6 
92 
197.6 
12 
10.4 
23 
73.4 
58 
136.4 
93 
199.4 
11 
12.2 
24 
75 2 
59 
138.2 
94 
201.2 
10. 
14.0 
25 
77.0 
60 
140.0 
95 
203.0 
9 
15.8 
26 
78.8 
61 
141.8 
96 
204.8 
8 
17.6 
27 
80.6 
62 
143.6 
97 
206.6 
7 
19.4 
28 
82.4 
63 
145.4 
98 
208.4 
— 6 4- 21.2 
+ 29 + 84.2 
+ 64 + 147.2 
99 
215.2 
+ 100 + 212.0 
110 + 230 
+ 210 + 410 
+ 310 + 590 
+ 410 
770 
120 
248 
220 
428 
320 
608 
420 
788 
130 
266 
230 
446 
330 
626 
430 
806 
140 
284 
240 
464 
340 
644 
440 
824 
150 
302 
250 
482 
350 
662 
450 
842 
160 
320 
260 
500 
360 
680 
460 
860 
170 
338 
270 
518 
370 
698 
470 
878 
180 
356 
280 
536 
380 
716 
480 
896 
+190 
374 
290 
554 
390 
734 
490 
914 
+290 + 392 
+ 300 + 572 
+ 400 
752 
+ 500 + 932 
+500 + 932 
+ 800+1472 
+1100+2012 
+1400+2552 
600 
1112 
+ 900 
1652 
1200 
2i92 
1500 
2732 
+700+1292 
+1000+1832 
+1300+2372 
+1600+2912 
— 
Barker. 
COMPAKISON OF CENTIGBADE AND FAHKENHEIT DEGBEES. APPENDIX. 
291 
ERRATA AND ADDENDA. 
Page 19, second line: after “English” supply “ex- 
cept where there is variation in equivalence.” 
Page 24, tenth line: for “precipitates” read “is pre- 
cipitated.” 
Page 27, fourth line from bottom: for “prepared” 
read “made.” 
Page 34, line 16: for “as an” read “for.” 
Page 45, line 8: for “appendix” read “toxicology.” 
Page 46, line 7: for “paraffined stoppered bottles” 
read “bottles whose glass stoppers have been paraffined.” 
Page 47, line 8: for “used” read “administered.” 
Page 48, line 8: for “ sulph-hydrate ” read “sulphy- 
drate.” 
Page 50, line 14: for Ba(H02) read Ba(HO)2. 
Page 55, line 13: for “as” read “in.” 
Page 62, line 6: for “ ferricyanate ” read “ferricy- 
anide.” 
Page 63, line 4: after “products” supply “of tissue 
change.” 
Page 79, line 2: for “urine” read “urinalysis.” 
Page 82: No. 92, after “alkaloids” supply “and de- 
rivatives.” 
Page 93: omit “see Appendix, etc.” 
Page 95: “ “ “ “ 
Page 128: for “Dallis” read “Dulles.” 
Page 163, line 16: after “1883” supply “ Am. Drug- 
gist.” 
Page 217, line 9: instead of “minutes’” read “min- 
utes.” 
Page 217, fourth line from bottom: for “orders” read 
“borders”; for “clido” read “cleido.” 292 
APPENDIX. 
Page 218, 2d line: for “rythmically ” read “rhythmic- 
ally.” 
Page 220, line 20: for “opistholonos” read “opis- 
thotonos.” 
Page 238, line 1: for “Nalr” read “Natr.” 
Page 233, line 15: for “Bone” read “bone.” 
Page 240, last line: for “lime burning” read “burn 
limestone.” 
Page 241, line 14: for “Si02” read (Si02)2. 
Page 241, fifth line from bottom: for (K2Mn04)2 read 
(K2MnO,),. 
Page 242, line 16: read [CaC102-f-CaCl2]. 
Page 244, line 7: for “entire molecule” read “entire 
crystal.” 
Page 257, line 8: for “processes” read “methods.” 
Page 257, line 14: instead of [Ca(CH02)2]2 read [Ca 
(CH02)2]3. 
Page 267, last line, for C10HuNj, read C10HUN. 
Page 268, 5th line: for C19, read C19. 
Page 269, 13th line: supply Agaricus Muscarius. 
Page 269, seventh line from bottom: for “Glyeeyer- 
hizin” read “ Glycyrrhizin.” 
Page 270, 8th line, supply Poplar bark. 
Page 270, 9th “ “ Apple-tree bark. 
Page 270, 10th “ “ Horse chestnut. 
Page 270, 11th “ “ Black oak. 
Page 270, line 21: for C17H91 read C17H21. INDEX. 
Page. 
Preface 3 
Part I.—Theory (Inor- 
ganic) 9-19 
Part II.—Chemistry (In- 
organic) 20-62 
Part II.—Chemistry (Or- 
ganic) 63-110 
Part II.—U r i n a 1 ys i s, 
111-125 
Part III. — Toxicology, 
126-228 
Appendix- 
Part I.— 229, 280 
Part II— 281-290 
Errata 291-292 
Abnormal constituents — 
Urine Ill 
Acetates 71 
Acetone 76, 91 
Acetonsemia 91 
Acids— 
Acetic 70 
Arsenious 57 
Arsenic 58 
Benzoic 72 
Boracic 17, 40 
Butyric 71 
Carbolic 69 
Carminic 269 
Cathartic 269 
Chromic 60 
Chrysophanic 270 
Citric 75 
Hydrobromic 36 
Hydrochloric 34 
Hydrocyanic 78 
Hydrofluoric 36 
Hydriodic 36 
Hydrosulphuric 35 
Lactic 72 
Page. 
Malic 73 
Meconic 139 
Molybdic 40 
Myronic 269 
Nitric 38 
Olaic 72 
Oxalic 73 
Phenic 69 
Phosphoric 17, 39 
Picric 70 
Prussic 78 
Salicylic 73 
Sclerotic 270 
Sulphuric 39 
Sulphurous 39 
Sulphocarbolic 69 
Sulphocarbonic 37 
Sulphocyanic 62 
Tannic 74 
Tartaric 74 
Uric 87, 113 
Valerianic 71 
Acids, theory of 14 
organic 70 
Aconitine 196, 200 
poisoning by... 196 
Adulterations, beer 183 
foods and 
drugs ... 285 
milk 95 
oils 260 
Air 22 
Albumins 85, 86, 111, 112 
Alcohol 266 
amyl 66 
ethyl 65, 266 
methyl 66 
Alcohols 64 to 70 
Aldehydes 75 
Alkalamides 79 
293 294 
INDEX. 
Alkaloids 80, 256, 268 
cinchona 82 
convulsive 81 
mydriatic 83 
myotic 84 
nux vomica 81 
opium 80 
soporific 81 
tables of 256, 268 
volatile 80 
Alum 60 
Alumina 60 
Aluminum 30* 
Aluminium 30 
Amides ... 78 
Amines 78 
Ammonia, gas 35, 168 
liquor 35 
poisoning by 168, 175 
Ammonium, acetate 71 
benzoate 72 
chloride 47 
carbonate.... 48 
cyanate 253 
hydrate 35 
nitrate ...... 48 
sulphide 48 
valerianate .. 72 
Amygdalin 77, 257 
Amyl, hydrate 66 
nitrite 258 
Analysis, elementary 249 
proximate 249 
systematic 137 
qualitative 137 
quantitative.. .. 121 
124, 125 
ultimate 249 
urinary Ill 
Aniline 78, 181 
poisoning by 181 
Antimony 29 
poisoning by... 177 
tartrate 74 
terchloride 58 
trisulphide 58 
Apomorphine 144 
Arsenic, metallic 29 
poisoning by 142 
Arsenious oxide 56 
poisoning by... 142 
Arseniates 58, 146 
Arsenites 57, 147 
of bromine... App., Part II. 
Ascitic fluids 109 
Atoms 9 
Atropine 83 
formula.83, 257, 288 
poisoning by... 187 
solubility 84 
sulphate ... .84, 187 
tests 191 
Aurum 28 
chloride 29 
Barium 26 
acetate 179 
chloride 50, 179 
hydrate 50 
iodide 50 
nitrate 179 
poisoning by 179 
sulphate 50 
Bedside testing, urine 120 
Benzole.. 64 
nitro 64, 181 
poisoning by 181 
Berberine 268 
Bile 98 
acids 99 
in urine 112 
Binary compounds 11 
Bismuth 29 
subnitrate 59 
subcarbonate 244 
Blood 88 
coloring matter 89 
salts 90 
serum 89 
tests 92, 113 
Borax 45 
Boron 25 
Bromine 22 
Brucine 83, 195 
Butter 94 
Buttermilk 94 
Caffeine 268 
Calabar bean 84, 268 
Calcium 26 
carbonate 48 INDEX. 
295 
chloride 49 
fluoride 50 
hydrate 49 
iodide 50 
oxalate 113 
oxide 49 
phosphate 49 
sulphate 49 
Calculi 103, 104, 105 
Camphor 76 
Cannabin, tannate 
Appendix, Part II. 
Carbon 25 
bisulphide 37 
dioxide 37 
monoxide 37 
Carbonic acid 37 
oxide 37 
poisoning by... 208 
Cellulose 268 
Cerium 229 
Chains 251 
Chloral 75 
hydrate.... 75, 180. 225 
poisoning by. .180, 225 
Chlorine 22, 175 
Chloroform 76, 180, 225 
poisoning by, 180, 225 
Cholesteraemia 91 
Cholesterin 66, 91 
Chromium 30 
Chyle 92 
Cinchona, alkaloids 82 
Cinchonicine 82 
Cinchonidine 82 
Cinchonine 82 
Citrates 75 
Cocaine 271 
hydrochlorate .... 271 
muriate 271 
oleate 271 
Codeine 80 
Colchicine 206 
Collodion 258 
Combustion 254 
Compounds 9 
Conine 80, 196 
Copper 27 
acetate 71 
ammonio-sulphate. 56 
arsenite 57 
hydrate 56 
poisoning by 178 
sulphate 56 
sulphide 56 
Cheese 94 
Cream 94 
Daturine 83, 193 
Deaths from poisoning, 
149, 158, 166, 169, 174, 
181, 185, 187, 189, 200, 
205, 225, 226, 227 228 
Decompositions 254 
Degenerations 106 
Deliquescence 33 
Derivatives 253 
Dextrine 69 
Dextrose 67 
Dialyzed iron 61 
Digestion 97, 101 
Digitaline 205 
Dropsical fluids 107 
Duboisine 83, 190 
Efflorescence 33 
Electro-chemical table. 10, 231 
Elementary substance.... 9 
Elements 20, 31 
Emetics 144 
Emetine 268 
Empirical formulas 234 
Emulsine 257 
Equivalence 10, 230 
difficult 13 
variations in 
12, 230 
Ergotinine. Appendix, Part II. 
Eserine 84, 96 
Estimations, quantita- 
tive—Albumin 125 
sugar 121, 123 
urea 124 
Ether 65 
sulphuric 65 
Ethers 65 
Ethyl, alcohol 64 
ether 65 
hydrate 64 
oxide 65 
Excretin 101 
Extractives 90 296 
INDEX. 
Exudations 107 
Faeces 101 
Fats 72, 89 
Fermentation 94, 254 
Ferments 255 
Ferric chloride 61 
citrate 75 
hydrate 61 
hypophosphite 61 
Ferricyanogen..: 43 
Ferricyanides 43 
Ferrocyanogen 43 
Ferrocyanides 43 
Ferrous chloride 61 
iodide 61 
lactate 73 
sulphate 61 
sulphide 61 
Ferrum 31 
Fibrin 85, 88 
Fluorine 23 
Foods 261, 266 
albuminous 263 
alcohol 266 
bread 264 
carbohydrates ..262, 267 
cereals 262 
coffee 265 
eggs 264 
fats 267 
fruits 264, 266 
nitrogenous 263 
salts 267 
tea 265 
vegetables 265 
Formulae 11-19 
acids 15-17 
binary 11 
empirical 250 
graphic 250 
hydrates 15 
hydroxides 15 
meta-acids 16 
ortho-acids 16 
rational 250 
reading 18 
salts 15 
structural 250 
substitution .... 253 
sulpho-acid 18 
writing 11-19 
Gases 
...20, 21,36,37, 63, 102, 175 
Gastric juice 96 
Gelsemic acid 216 
Gelsemium 215 
Gelseminine 216 
Globulins 85 
Glucose 67 
Glucosides 77, 268 
Glycerin 66 
Glycocholic acid 99 
Glycosuria 99 
Gold 28 
Gun-cotton 258 
Haemaglobin 89, 92 
Haematin 85 
Halogens 22 
Hippuric acid 79 
Hippurates, calcium, lith- 
ium, sodium—Appendix, 
Part II. 
Homoeopathic terms 235 
Homologous series 252 
Hydrates 14 
Hydrocarbons 63, 64 
Hydrogen 21 
arsenide 35 
monoxide 32 
peroxide 34 
sulphide 35 
Hydro-nephrotic cysts 110 
Hydroxides 14 
Hygrin 272 
Hyoscine 83, 191 
Hyoscyamine 83 
poisoning by 190 
—“Ic” 11 
Ichthyol (sulphonate of so- 
dium).. . .Appendix, Part II. 
Indican 113 
Intestinal fluids, etc 100 
Iodine 22 
Iodoform 77, 92 
Iodol, Appendix, Part II. 
Iron 31 
Iron, salts (see ferric, ferrous.) 
Isomerism 253 
Jaborandi 84 
J aundice 91 
Jervine 207, 268 
Kali (see Potassium.) INDEX. 
297 
Lactates 73 
Lactose 68 
Lead 28 
acetate 71, 178 
carbonate 59 
chloride 59 
chromate 60 
iodide 59 
nitrate 59 
poisoning by 178 
oxides 59 
sub-acetate 71, 178 
Lithaemia 99 
Lithium 229 
benzoate 72 
citrate 75 
hippurate 
App., Part II 
Liver 99 
Lymph 92 
Magnesium 26 
carbonate 51 
chloride 51 
oxide 51 
phosphate 51 
sulphate 51 
Manganese 31 
black oxide 62 
dioxide 62 
peroxide.... 62, 165 
Manganous, carbonate.... 62 
sulphate 62 
sulphide 62 
Marsh test 57,143, 152 
Mercury 27 
ammoniated 55 
Mercuric chloride 53 
poisoning by.... 177 
cyanide 54 
iodide 54 
nitrate 55 
oxide 54 
sulphate 55 
sulphide 55 
Mercurous, chloride . ... 53 
iodide 54 
nitrate 56 
oxide 54 
“ Mercurius solubilis ”.... 55 
Mercury tannate, App., Part II 
Meta-acids 16 
Methane 63 
Methyl, alcohol 66 
hydrate * ... 66 
hydride 63 
Milk 93 
cow’s 93 
human 93 
Mineral waters... .33, 236, 239 
Molecule 9 
Molecular wts 231, 255 
Monobromated camphor.. 76 
Monsel’s solution 61 
Morphine... 81 
acetate 157 
formula -81 
hydrochlorate... 81 
muriate 81 
preparations ... 157 
solubilities 81 
sulphate 81 
tests 81 
Mydriatics 83 
Myotics 84 
Naphthalin 64 
Narceine 80 
Narcotine 80 
“Natrum ” (see Sodium). 
Nessler’s solution 240 
Nickel 229 
Nicotine 80 
poisoning by 205 
Nitre 42 
Nitrobenzole 64 
poisoning by 181 
Nitrocellulose 258 
Norm a 1 constituents of 
urine 113 
urine Ill 
Oil 72, 260 
almond 257, 260 
castor 260 
cod-liver 260 
color reactions 260 
fusel oil 66 
olive 72, 260 
reactions 260 
turpentine 63 
vitriol 39, 129, 167 298 
INDEX. 
Organic chemistry 63 
theory 249 
Ortho-acids 16 
Ovarian, cysts 108 
Oxygen 20 
Ozone 21 
Pancreatic juice 100 
Papaverine 80 
Papayotin. .Appendix, Part II. 
Paris green 57, 146, 212 
Pelletierine 269 
tannate, App., Part II. 
Pepsin 96 
Peptones 86, 97, 117 
Phenol 69 
Phosphorus 24 
Physical characteri sties, 
urine Ill 
Physostigma 84 
Physostigmine 84 
Picrotoxin 77 
Pilocarpine 84 
Piperine 268 
Platinic chloride 60 
Platinum 30 
Poisoning and poisons. .. 126 
acids 129, 167 
aconite 132, 196, 223 
action 126 
administration 126 
alcohol 133 
alkalies 130, 168 
aloes 173 
ammonia 175 
analysis (systematic)... 137 
anaesthetics 181 
animal irritants 179 
anilines 181 
antidotes 155 
antimony 177 
appearances, post-mor- 
tem 127 
arsenic 131, 142, 219 
atropine 187, 224 
asphyxiants 208 
barium 179 
behavior of suspected 
parties in poisoning 
cases 128 
bland liquids in cases of 
poisoning 134 
belladonna 185, 224 
bichromate of potassium, 173 
camphor 183 
carbolic acid. . .130, 169, 224 
carbonic acid 208 
chloral 132, 225 
chlorine 175 
chloroform 180, 225 
coal gas 209, 219, 225 
cocculus 183 
colchicum 205 
colocynth 173 
conium 195 
convulsants 195 
copper 178 
arseniate 212 
corrosive sublimate. 131, 177 
creasote 226 
croton oil 174 
decayed meat 133 
definition 126 
delirants 185 
detection 
137, 151, 152, 153, 162, 164 
depressants 205 
diagnosis 127 
digitalis 205 
duboisine 190 
duties of physician 127 
chemist 135 
elaterium 174 
effects 126 
electricity in treatment, 
155, 217 
emetics 128, 143 
examination, post-mor- 
tem 127 
failures to detect... 159, 163 
flagellation, as treat- 
ment 134 
gamboge 174 
gases 175 
gelsemium 215 
household treatment... 128 
hyoscyamus 190 
hyposthenisants 196 
hydrocyanic acid... ... 201 
hemlock 133 INDEX. 
299 
instruments used in pois- 
oning cases 134 
iodine -. 176 
inebriants 181 
irritants 173 
jalap 174 
jamestown weed 133 
lead, sugar of 131, 178 
lobelia 205 
lunar caustic 133 
narcotics 180 
neurotics 180 
nightshade 133 
ni tro-benzole 181 
nitric acid 226 
oil of tansy 220 
opium . .. .131, 153, 222, 227 
oxalic acid 130, 168 
oxygen (in treatment).. 210 
paralysants 195 
phosphorus 131 
potassium chlorate 211 
prussic acid 201, 210 
ptomaines 174 
scammonium 174 
sewer-gas 209 
stramonium 190 
spectroscope in cases... 211 
stimulants 134, 135 
symptoms 127 
strychnine 132, 160, 228 
sulphuretted hydrogen.. 208 
sulphurous acid 175 
syncopants 196 
tartar emetic 131 
toadstools 133 
tobacco 133, 205 
urine in poisoning 171 
veratrine 206 
water gas 208 
Potassium 26 
acid carbonate. 43 
acid tartrate... 74 
arsenite 57 
bichromate .... 42 
bromide 41 
carbonate 43 
chlorat e 42 
chromate 42 
cyanide 41, 202 
ferricyanide. .. 43 
ferrocyanide... 43 
hydrate 41 
hypophosphite. 44 
iodide 41 
nitrate 42 
oxalate 73 
permang’n’te42, 240 
phosphate (Kali 
Phos) 41 
sodium tartrate 71 
sulphate 42 
sulphocyanate . 62 
sulphite 44 
tartrate 74 
Processes of manufacture, 
etc 240 
alcohol 257 
aluminum chloride 242 
ammonia 242 
ammonium carbonate.. 242 
ammonium chloride.... 242 
amyl nitrit , 258 
arsenious oxide 243 
arseniuretted hydrogen. 243 
bromine 241 
bismuth subnitrate 24g 
calcium oxide 242 
carbon dioxide 240 
carbon monoxide 241 
chlorinated lime 242 
chloroform 257 
ferrous sulphate 242 
ether 257 
hydrocyanic acid 258 
hydrcgen 240 
hydrogen peroxide 240 
hydrogen sulphide 241 
iodine 241 
iron 242 
laughing gas 240 
mercuiic chloride 242 
mercuric oxide 242 
mercurous oxide 243 
nitrogen 240 
nitric amd 240 
oil of bitter almonds... 257 
oxygen 240 
phosphorus 241 
phosphoric acid 241 300 
INDEX. 
potassium bichromate .. 241 
iodide 241 
permanganate 241 
pyroxyline 258 
reduced iron 242 
salicylic acid 257 
sodium carbonate 242 
sulphuric acid 241 
soaps 258 
sulphuretted hydrogen.. 241 
tartaric acid 257 
tartar emetic 257 
Pseudo-monad 12 
-triad 12 
Ptomaines 175 
Ptyalin 95 
Purity of water 235 
Putrefaction 254 
Pyroxyline 258 
Quinicine 82 
Quinidine 82 
Quinine 82 
solubility 82 
sulphate 82 
tests 82-83 
Quinolin 269 
Radicle 250 
Realgar 149 
Residues 250 
Rochelle salt 74 
Galley 5 
Salicin 77 
Salicylates 73 
Saliva 95 
Salt, epsom 51 
glauber 46 
Salts, solubility 247, 248 
theory 14 
Santonine 270 
Scheele’s green 57 
Schweinfurth green 57 
Sediments, urinary 
112, 117, 118, 119 
Silica 40 
Silicon 25 
Silver 26 
chloride 48 
nitrate 48 
poisoning by 173 
Skim-milk 94 
Sinapine 268 
Soaps 72 
Sodium 25 
arseniate 58 
borate 45 
carbonate 46 
bicarbonate 46 
chloride 45 
hydrate 46 
hypophosphite.... 47 
hyposulphite 46 
phosphate 46 
salicylate 73 
sulphate 46 
sulphite 46 
sulphocarbolate.... 69 
Solanine 268 
Solubilities 247, 248 
Sparteine sulphate 
App., Part II 
Specific gravity, beads.... 124 
liquids .. 244 
solids ... 245 
tables... 244 
Spina bifida 109 
Stannic, sulphide 60 
Stannous, chloride 60 
Stannum 30 
Starch 68 
Stearine 72 
Stercorin 101 
Strontium 229 
Strychnine 81 
formula 81 
poisoning by.. 160 
solubility...... 81 
sulphate.. ..82, 166 
tests 82, 83 
Substitutions 253 
Sugars 67-69, 261 
glucose 67, 261 
lactose 68, 261 
sucrose 68, 261 
reactions 261 
in urine 
Ill, 116,117, 123 
Sulpho-salts 15 
Sulphur 23 
dioxide 39 
Symbols 10 INDEX. 
301 
Tables, atomic wts 229 
i elements 229 
formulae .. ....243, 258 
metric App., Part II 
molecular wts.231, 255 
solubilities 248 
specific gravity. .. 244 
water of crystalli- 
zation 243, 258 
Tannate, cannabin, mer- 
cury, pelletierine 
App., Part II 
Tannin 74 
Tartar, cream of 74 
emetic 74 
poisoning by 177 
Taurocholic acid 99 
Terebene... .Appendix, Part II 
Ternary 14 
Terpine Appendix, Part II 
Terpinol Appendix, Part II 
Test papers 23. 122 
Thebaine 80 
Theine 268 
Theobromine 268 
Theory, inorganic 9-19 
Thymols 70 
Tin 30 
Toxic conditions, blood.. 90 
Toxicology 126 
Turpentine 63 
Types 252 
Uraemia 90 
Urates 
..112, 113, 114, 116, 117, 122 
Urea 78, 113, 114, 124 
Urethan Appendix, Part II 
Uric acid 87, 113, 117, 119 
Uricaemia 99 
Urinalysis Ill 
Urinary coloring matter 
113, 115 
Urine Ill 
physical characteris- 
tics HI 
quantity Ill, 115 
color Ill, 114, H5 
odor Ill, 115 
reaction. ...Ill, 115 
specific gravity.. Ill, 115 
sediments... Ill, 112, 
113, 117, 118, 119, 120 
abnormal constitu- 
ents. .111, 115, 116, 117 
normal constituents, 
113,114, 118, 124 
tests, albumen .. .111, 
115, 120, 122, 125 
sugar Ill, 
116, 117, 121, 123 
bile 112 
peptone 
112, 117, 121 
urates 
112, 114, 117, 121 
phosphates .... 
112, 114, 118 
pus 112, 119 
mucus 120, 122 
blood 113, 119 
uric acid 
113, 117, 119 
calcium oxalate, 
113, 119 
urea 114, 124 
chlorides 114 
urohaematin .... 114 
sulphates 115 
indican 115 
fungi 113 
epithelial cells. 113 
oil 113 
casts 113 
spermatozoa .. 
113, 120 
Variations in equivalence, 
12, 230 
Vera trine 207 
Vomit 97 
Water 32 
of crystallization... 243 
tests for purity.... 235 
Zinc 27 
bromide 52 
chloride 52 
ferrocyanide 52 
hydrate 52 
iodide 52 
oxide 52 
poisoning by 173 
sulphate 52 
sulphide 240