TB-PH-WEL-19 
QROUP WORK 
PUBLIC HEALTH AM) WELFARE TECHNICAL BULLETIN 
PHW GHQ SCAP APO 500 
May 194-9 
1 * General 
The basic material used in the two seminars in group work given at the Osaka 
College of Social Work and the Japan School of Social Work is presented in this 
Bulletin for the interest of Welfare Officers, This material has been translated 
into Japanese and is available from the Ministry of Education, The Primer of 
Group Work in Japan is available from the two schools of social work. All stu- 
dents in the seminars were given this material in Japanese, Tt is emphasized 
that this material is in a form of simple, basic principles applicable to any 
type of group including institutions and settlemen+s. It is not for the treatment 
of problem children, but assumes that the individuals in the group are able fto 
make average group adjustment, 
• # • 
Bibliographies may be obtained from the following sources: 
i 
Bibliography on Group Work 
Published by American Association of Group Workers 
134 East 56th Street 
New York 22, New York (250) 
Bibliography on Group Therapy 
Published by American Group Therapy Association 
22B East 19th Street 
New York 3, New York (400) 
♦ 
Bibliography for Recreation Workers 
National Recreation Association 
315 Fourth Avenue 
New York, New York (5#) 
2• Characteristics of Groups 
Life today is lived in groups* We all belong to various kinds of groups - 
family, work, school, recreational, etc. This is natural and good, Man is a 
social animal and reaches his highest development in association with others. 
Even if it were possible for a person to survive physically in isolation, the 
average individual could not survive psychologically. Therefore, we must learn how to live and act harmoniously and benefically in groups. This means that we 
must learn control, self abnegation, willingness to cooperate and to share, res- 
pect for the rights of others, and many other more or less difficult practices. 
Some people have achieved these to a high degree, - others in lesser degree. 
Most of us would be happier and find greater satisfaction in our daily relation- 
ships with others if we had had more specific training in this regard. 
Children are born egocentric, and infants regard as good anything that con- 
tributes to their physical needs. If this comfort is not prompt in forthcoming, 
the infant protests. As he grows older, he learns he must share his mother with 
others who make demends on her time and attention. This is usually a painful 
and hard lesson. Later, the child wishes to have the companionship and attention 
of others. He would like to have this entirely on his own terms - to be able 
to eat, touch, or play with anything that catches his fancy. However, he gradu- 
ally learns that others have their rights, too. An adult who has not grasped 
this idea we term ” infantile” • 
The child’s first group is, hopefully, his own family. As each family 
differs in its ideas, compositon and pattern, so each child differs. His next 
group is usually that of his play group, ordinarily composed of children who 
live in the same neighborhood. As he goes to school he enters another and 
different kind of group His circle of playmates is enlarged. 
a, Collective Urge, At about the age of seven (in America) the average 
child is willing to give up consistently some of his own selfish behavior in 
order to have companions of his own age. He has learned to ’’take turns”, to 
share his belongings, to distinguish between reality and fantasy. He has also 
learned something about life and its system of rewards and deprivation. He knows 
a little about the influence that stronger individuals exert over weaker ones. 
He is still strongly egocentric but he is willing at times to put the interests 
6f others, especially those he likes, ahead of his own. 
It is at this age, then - approximately seven years - that acceptance 
by his contemporaries takes on a new importance to him. It is also a signifi- 
cant milestone for those of us who are interested in his social education. 
This seeking out of acceptance we call social hunger and it is felt by- 
all normal individuals. Unless a person has social hunger we cannot work 
effectively with him in a group* The desire to belong to a group increases and 
probably is strongest between the ages of eleven and fifteen - again, these 
figures are approximate, and based on studies of children in North and South 
America, During this period, the child will join almost any kind of a group and 
often with little conscious motivation. The collective urge is very pronounced. 
As the adolescent emergesfrom this period, he is less inclined to join a group 
unless he sees in it some distinct advantage * the opportunity to do something 
or learn something v/hich he cannot accomplish so well alone. The average adult 
has a well defined, well thought out reason for affiliating himself with any 
group. 
2 * We used tc think the collective urge faded out after adolescence but in 
the last ten years experiments in group work have been made (in Chicago, Cleveland, 
New York, Philadelphia and other cities) with elderly people, especially those 
who feel alone in the world. It was found that when people pass their sixties, 
the need for class group association is felt strongly once more. Workers with 
this age group have reported that the characteristics exhibited in group meetings 
by these elderly men and women more nearly resemble those of early adolescence 
than any other age group* 
b. Types of Groups 0 The groups of which we have been speaking may be 
"natural” or "formed'1' groups. That is to say, they may or may not be formed by 
an outside agent or organization. We think of the family and early play groups 
as "natural" groups. We think of groups whose formation has been fostered by an 
organization such as the Scouts as "formed" group0 Some people because of for- 
tunate accidents find the means to good social education in natural groups. 
However, the needs of the individual in this regard are too important to be left 
to chance. Many persons have unhappy family situations, others fall into the 
companionship of those whose influence may be destructive. The child in an un- 
supervised play group, because he is bigger and physically stronger than his play- 
mates, often gets the idea that his might makes right. His playmates may accept 
this idea, also, and it is hard to say whether they or he suffer most as a con- 
sequence. In any case, it is not a concept that we wish to promulgate in a free 
democratic society, where right is determined by other means than those of force 
or superior strength* 
c, Methodology. There are many methods of social education among which 
group work is one3 In'group work we make use of the normal desire 
to be accepted by his associates. The group itself becomes the tool of education, 
by means of which we try to influence the development of each person-in the group. 
This means that there is a knowledge and conscious use of the interaction among 
group members being utilized by someone charged with this specific responsibility, 
s' 
This person maybe known as the "leader" "Advisor" or "group worker"* 
He observes that each person who joins or leaves the group has an effect upon the 
group - more or less, depending upon the strength of that individual. He knows 
that each member reacts in some way to every other, that each affects the group 
as a whole and is in turn affected by it. These interactions we call group 
processes. and take place in all natural and in some formed groups. Unless they 
go on we do not have a group in the true sense. We know that some collections 
of individuals cannot be unified, and cannot experience the feeling of unity, 
without which the group cannot stay together, and therefore, disintegrates. As 
we study the dynamics of group process we unders+and what essentials must be 
found in the feeling of the group, if it is to be used as an educational instrument 
We have seen that at about the age of seven the urge to belong to a raore- 
or-less stable, well defined group is felt. Therefore, in group work we begin 
our education of children at about this age. There is another reason for beginning at about this time. Supervised recreation has demonstrated its worth in combating 
juvenile delinquency. We know from studies made in the field that the onset of 
juvenile delinquency takes place before the age of nine. In other words, those 
who are likely to be branded as Mjuvenile delinquents” in later years give some 
warning of their future behavior by the time they are nine. Therefore, those 
interested in the prevention of juvenile delinquency should give time and 
attention to children at the time problem behavior symptoms are incipient. 
We previously pointed out that the collective urge or desire-to-be-in-a- 
group is strongest between the ages of 11 and-15* Therefore, we would expect 
group work to be most effective within this age range. 
As the adolescent becomes an adult he is less malleable. It is difficult 
to change his habits, attitudes and values, much less his basic personality 
structure. Only something which reaches far deeper than ordinary group association 
can do this. Adult groups which provide wholesome recreational, intellectual or 
social action programs act as outlets for habits and attitudes already learned 
and are praiseworthy for this purpose. They enrich the lives of countless 
persons but it is doubtful if such programs can be strictly classified as group 
work in the specific sense of a technical process. At present, we htve no evi- 
dence to testify to the fact that group work is a successful technique in the 
re-education of adults between the ages of twenty and sixty# The studies made 
wi£h elderly people are as yet too sparse to give detail as to resul+s in that 
age group. 
We do have evidence from psychiatric studies that seme personality dis- 
tortions and abberrations could have been prevented by careful guidance of the 
child by an adequately trained adult. Since adult leaders of children’s leisure 
time groups, camp counsellors, scout leaders, etc,, are notably recognized as 
having great influence over the children they guide, it is hoped that extensive 
and thorough training made available to such persons will have a far reaching 
effect on the youth of the world, and the citizenry of the future. "Character” 
education as it is sometimes called, to distinguish it from the mastery of a 
subject like mathematics or languages, seems, from a long view, to have the 
greater importance to the common The discoveries of science are be- 
neficial to the world only in ratio to the use made of them, and this use is 
determined, not by the availability of the product, or the need of mankind for 
it, but by the personal qualities of those who control its production. 
Let it not be thought that we claim for group ?;ork a sole or superior 
methods of "character” training. It is only one of the many methods now in use, 
but one which could be utilized far more effectively than it has been to date. 
It is heavily dependent on cultural traditions and moral codes, 
d. Group Specifications. In order to use group work most effectively we need 
some specifications as to the kind of group which has seemed to produce the best 
results. First of all, the attendance of the group must be voluntary on the part of each member, member joins the group of his own free will and may dis- 
continue coming to meetings whenever he loses interest. There is no penalty 
attached to his dropping out, save loss of membership in the group. The unsuper- 
vised play group and the formed group or club can fulfill the qualification 
completely, in a way that a family, school or work group cannot. The reason 
attendance must be voluntary seera, fairly obvious. If we are to expect maximum 
results from group work the readiness to participate must be felt by the persons 
to be educated. A person who enrolls in a group or attends a meeting unwillingly, 
or not entirely by his own choice may bring an attitude or resistance, passivity, 
or irresponsibility in regard to the activities of the group. 
e. Size» The group should be small in number. It is impossible to say 
exactly how many people would Constitute an ideal group for educational purposes 
because the KIND of personalities involved affect the program more than the 
number. However, we may set the number at about twelve - more or less - as an 
indication of what we mean by "small”. Smaller groups have been highly success- 
ful, It is comparatively easy to find meeting places for small groups and to move 
them about on trips, excursions and such outings. It is possible for the members 
to know each other well. It is easier in a small group for shy or reticent persons 
to participate fully. Most important, attitudes and opinions are more easily 
voiced and changed and since we are using the group meeting as a medium of educa- 
tion, we must provide opportunity for this, 
• 
This is not meant to disparage the need for large group gatherings for 
certain purposes. It is merely to state that for our specific purpose the small 
group has proven best. 
f. Frequency. The group must meet frequently. In a child’s group this 
me?ns at least once a week. With older people, it may mean once or twice a month. 
The more frequent the meeting the more opportunity the group has to influence its 
members, is they*build bonds of friendship, they feel accountable to one another 
for their activities, not only during the meetings but between +imes. This puts an 
added check on the personal conduct of each member. Obviously, a group which meets 
once or twice a year has no such hold on its members. 
Given this small, frequently meeting group, to which people come voluntarily, 
we must stipulete in even further detail how best to derive its maximum benefits. 
Certain further specifications are necessary to insure a stable, harmonious group 
that will be most productive of the things we hope from it.. 
g. Homogeneity. The members of the group must be alike in at least a number of 
ways. This likeness among members we call homogeneity. The,factor may be related t 
£ wide variety of things - economic condition, vocation, experience with democracy, 
I.Q., physical skill, etc, A group of fourteen-year old Japanese boys, all of whom 
are Buddhists, we would see immediately homogeneous in regard to age, nation- 
ality, sex and religion. These items are more easily determined than those pre- 
viously mentioned. However, the former may be more important to the adult who finds himself in the role of advisor to such a group. Depending on the activities and 
purpose of the group, certain points of homogeneity become more or less important 
than others. These factors add to or subtract from the smooth functioning of the 
group, With children the age factor is usually very important. A child of twelve 
has in+erests quite different from a child of seven. Therefore, we usually find 
that children work best in groups with a narrow age range - two or three years 
difference between the oldest and youngest members. However, in adult groups the 
difference of five or ten years between members is scarcely felt, 
h. Program of activities, In a later discussion we shall elaborate on the 
kind of activities employed in group work and ho?7 program building takes place. 
Suffice it say here, then, that since we ate using group v;ork as a method of social 
education it naturally follows that the activities must be good in themselves, 
that they cannot be contrary to the lav/, nor destructive of the common good, 
Fithin this limitation, they may be anything the group wishes. All programs are 
planned by the group and leader working together, and must reflect the needs and 
interests of the group. Equal opportunity must be given to all persons for 
participation, I 
1, Leadership, This subject will also be discussed at length later, in regard 
to the concept of leadership in a democratic group and the personal qualities 
needed for such leadership. The pleader, in order to be considered a group worker, 
must obviously be a?jare of the ways by which the group processes may be utilized, 
j. Atmosphere. The general atmosphere must be a warm, friendly informal one. 
This means that an air of freedom, hospitality and cooperation will pervade it. 
Unless a person feels comfortable in a group he can ot make his best contribution 
to it. He cannot develop secial attitudes in an atmosphere that is hostile or 
sterile. Although there is always opportunity for disagreement in a democratic 
group, it does not necessarily folio?; that there is bitterness or resentment. 
Harmony must prevail. Unity, not uniformity is the keynote. The general tone of 
the group as well as its program of activities, must be one in ?;hich the members 
take pride. Otherwise, we cannot expect it to act as a lever, in raising them to a 
higher level, 
k. Code of behavior. As the members feel pride in belonging to the group, 
and identifying their interests with one another's, a code of behavior develops. 
Sometimes, this is explicit and written down for new members to folio?;, as in the 
Scout laws. In other groups it is implicit but none the less pov;erful. Groups whose 
?;ays and means are directed toward socially desirable goals develop a code of ethics 
which hold members to a higher standard of conduct than they ?;ould be likely to 
attain if they were not members of the group. Underworld "gangs0 and groups of 
delinquents have also powerful codes of behaviour but since they are directed toward 
anti-social goals their effect on the character of the members is questionable. 
Loyalty to the group code varies with individuals but has high prestige value both • 
within and ou+side of the group. 1, Objectives of group work. As we have noted previously the ultimate objec- 
tive of group.work is the development of the individual by means of the group. This 
objective does not necessarily exist in the. minds of the members, but is always 
foremost in the mind of the group worker. The group itself determines the immedi- 
ate objectives, and these must be well understood by all members* 
The group worker, in working for the fullest development of each individual, 
has the responsibility of knowing each member well, and guiding the group processes 
in the needs and interests of all the members of the group,. This is a difficult 
and intricate task. He is trying to teach them how to get along well with others, 
and to work out satisfactory relationships, in the hope that these will carry over 
from this particular group to other settings, such as family, school and work 
group. He is trying to teach the group as a, whole how to act as an effective 
Unit in a democratic society. He has both individual and group goals continually 
in mind. While he develops the "group spirit" he tries to instill a sense of right 
values, the power to choose, and a feeling of responsibility for onefs own and 
other’s actions. At the same time he recognizes the right of the individual to 
solve his own problems, and to be different from those around him, as well integrated 
individuals are "different" when they develop their unique gifts and talents to the 
fullest for the benefit of society. The group worker aids the individual in 
acquiring a sense of reality, as he measures his own strength and limitations with 
others in the group, 4 
- V 
The group, meanwhile has determined, with the help of the leader, what its 
own objectives are. These may be purely recreational. The members come together 
for enjoyment and refreshment -physical or cultural, as in a sports club, a music 
or photography club, or to practice conversation in a foreign language. The culti- 
vation of worthwhile hobbies and the wise use of leisure time are good educational 
objectives. The leader may see in such programs excellent opportunities for 
teaching, better health habits, good sportsmanship, love of the artistic, etc. The 
group may set as the objective service to others - to the community, to needy persons 
£tc, It may study social problems, plan and execute social action. This again would 
be quite in keeping with the general and primary objective of group work. 
The group may have set for itself as a goal the acquisition of skills or 
knowledge useful in daily life. All these things are good, and foster the kind of 
atmosphere in which personal guidance may be given by the group worker. 
Some groups have a multiplicity of objectives. Children’s groups especially 
are likely to, and probably should have, the kind of program that embraces all the 
above objectives;, The emphasis may change and vary according to the age and interest 
of the members. There is no limit to the number of objectives a group may have, but 
they should be within reasonable assurance of attainmeni and known and desired by 
all the members. Groups fail at times when the objectives are set by an outside 
agent and do not reflect the interests of the group. They may fail if the members are 
over ambitious or immature in their planning and set objectives for which facilities 
are totally lacking or beyond reach of the group# 
„ r I 
7 . In orgaizing new groups it is best to have only a few definite objectives, 
based on needs felt, by the group, and toward which immediate and expert guidance 
can be given, A few persons, well organized, and clear as to their objective and 
the means to attain it, can be far more effective than a hundred persons who have 
only a vague set of goals and no real plan or assurance of accomplishment* 
3. Consideration Regarding Leadership 
The word "leader” in English has a meaning sufficiently distinctive that it is 
difficult to find an exact equivalent in other languages. Perhaps that is because 
it has acquired a connotation that implies certain qualities and techniques over 
and above the literal translation of the word. When we speak of a "leader” we do 
not mean one who uses cruelty, force or'violence to compel people to do his will* 
Fe do not mean a person who tells people what to do* That type of individual we 
refer to as a dictator or tyrant. By "leader" we mean someone whom people follow 
confidently and freely. The word is not. used as a title as would be "President", 
"Chairman", "Director," etc. All such people are in pbsitons of leadership but may 
or may not be leaders in the sense of the word as described above, A true leader 
is always in a position to influence people but at any one time* he may not be 
holding an office which carries a formal title. For example, a man may be a leader 
in the neighborhood where he lives. The people of the neighborhood hold him in 
high esteem bu+ if there is no formal organization of the neighborhood he does not 
have a title, nor any explicit, responsibilities. 
The world has great need of more good leaders. We never have had enough of 
them. Where a leader steps forward, many are willing to foliow, but comparatively 
few are prepared or able to take that first step out ahead of the crowd. 
One cannot become a leader merely by reading about techniques of leadership 
any more than one can become a swimmer or a violinist. The study of theory helps 
but one must above all practice. Where oan one get this practice? Obviously, only 
in a group, 
» 
Nor does one develop suddenly into a leader, at the age of, let us say 21 or '' 
30, The practice must begin with one’s early group experiences, 
a. Development of Leaders. In group work, then, we have an ideal training 
ground for group leaders. We must plan more systematically than has ever been 
done to guide the group life of children so that as adults they will be willing 
and able to assume the responsibilities of leadership. 
When children come into a group work program at about the age of seven we 
note that they already possess varying abilities as leaders. Where have they 
developed these? At home, in their play groups and in associatirn with their 
schoolmates — usually by chance. They have discovered ways of influencing other 
children. They have developed some techniques of doing this — both good and bad' 
techniques. The adult advisor looks over the group and notes the range of leader- ship ability, the misconceptions, the faulty habits. It is the adult’s job, then, 
to work with all the children in the group, to strengthen good ideas of influence, 
to eradicate bad ones. Since the children are so young they are extremely teach- 
able. Much can be done to develop those qualities needed in leaders. This is a 
primary responsibility of the adult advisor, or group worker. 
It is done partly by giving a child just as much responsibility as he 
can assume, no more, iwd less. To gauge the amount the adult must study the child 
closely. He must help the child to feel satisfaction in carrying responsibility. 
He praises the child, permits him certain privileges, gives him a feeling of being 
"grown up”. All normal children crave this. Naturally, each child differs in his 
ratte of development. 
The adult urges the child to teach others what he knows. The child must 
learn to use his gifts for the benefit of the group. Simple principles of demo- 
cratic government are explained, so that the child may understand that an elected 
representative expounds the opinion of tb© group, not his own. 
The idea of common good is explained so that the child may understand how 
it can be achieved by each contributing his best to the group activities and 
objectives• 
The adult restrains some children, urges others into prominence; explains 
that "bossing" and "bullying" are not leadership. Insofar as possible the adult 
permits the group to discipline, itself in matters of leadership as in all other 
areas, 
'In some children’s groups the total group is sub-divided into several 
small units as in the "patrol system" used by Scouts. These units elect their own 
child-leader who works with the adult advisor on matters that concern the whole 
group. The child leader is responsible for gathering the opinions of each member 
of his small unit and representing them in planning for the total group. This is 
an elementary form of representative government which spreads the opportunity for 
more members to gain leadership experience. It differs from committee responsi- 
bility. Committees may also function in groups which use the "patrol system". 
This system is useful in some adult groups, also, depending upon the 
nature and organization of their work. 
As groups advance ih age the position of the adult advisor becomes less 
prominent and may disappear. 
b. Recognition. Leaders are entitled to some recognition of the honor their 
office carries. They usually have a certain title. They may wear a badge, or 
insignia denoting their title or position. The use of such badges is not only for 
purposes of honoring the leader, but for administrative convenience, showing 
quickly who is in a position of responsibility, not only to group members but also * 
to those outside the group. Special privileges may be allowed the leader. These, however, should not be so comprehensive as to set him too far apart from the 
• group, and should be granted him only with the consent of the group members, 
c. Term of Office, In a natural group a leader maintains his position as long 
as the group permits. In a formed group, or ’’organized1' group there is always a 
definite term of office. This may be a matter of a few weeks in a children’s group. 
In adult groups it is usually for one or two years. The constitution should de- 
fine the term of office and state whether or not the leader is eligible for re- 
election, The adult advisor of a children’s group often referred to as "leader” 
should have a term of office defined by the agency or institution which has formed 
the children’s group. Such advisors are often volunteers, and, if satisfactory to 
both the group and the agency, frequently continue in such positions for years, 
d, Flection. of groups are chosen in accordance withdemocratic 
principles, by secret ballot# Ordinarily, this is written. With children, or those 
unable to write, it may be done by having a non-participant call out the names of 
those nominated, while members keep their eyes closed. The members vote by raising 
their hands when the name of their candidate is called out# 
It is important to teach people how to choose good leaders. For this 
reason we allow children to elect child leaders freely. The adult does not inter- 
fere even when he thinks the children’s choice may be unwise. Actually, whet 
seems to be an unwise choice may turn out to be a good one. If not, the adult 
permits the children to learn by experience the effects of poor leadership, while 
doing all he can to assist the elected child to function as a good leader. 
Children can learn by such mistakes, and in any case the results are not apt to be 
too serious. It is better to make a mistake at twelve years of age than at 25> 
and if we do not permit children to exercise their choice they will not learn the 
wisdom required to make a good selection# > 
Children, as well as adults frequently make the error of thinking an 
outstanding person in one field can be equally expert in another. They may find 
out that the boy who is so prominent in athletics is irresponsible in organizing 
a hike or a party, or does not carry out the wishes of a group in regard to plans 
they have voted upon. Adults make similar mistakes if they have not learned to 
analyze the qualifications of a certain person for a certain position. Our leaders, 
being human, cannot be perfect. They have strengths and weaknesses. They have 
knowledge in some fields but not in all. When we seek a leader we must first 
determine the quality of personality and the knowledge needed for the job, and 
then try to find the person who possesses them as fully as possible, A leader in 
the field of aeronautics may know nothing of international affairs, a leader in the 
field of science may be totally uninformed in religion, a leader in education may 
know nothing of agriculture# Therefore, we choose the person whose knowledge in the 
field entitles him to respect# If, in addition to his expert knowledge of this 
subject, he possesses qualities of leadership, he will influence large numbers of 
people. Such leaders will make wide use of consultants who are exports in matters 
in which tho loader is not well informed. The quality and. quantity of these con- 
sultants often determine the calibre of the total program of the leader. 
a. Techniques. The democratic leader is the servant of the group. He must 
act upon their wishes, in the way determined by them. If he does not, he will not 
be re-elected at the end of his terra. Democratic groups expect their leaders to 
make some mistakes, and make allowances for this. However, if the mistakes are 
too great or too frequent, the leader loses prestige with the group and they will 
no longer regard him as fit for leadership of their group. He must gather group 
opinion and act upon it to the best of his ability. He may measure the group 
opinion against his own ideas, try to point out to the group a better way of doing 
things, use his position to try to influence the group opinion. However, in the 
end he must do as the group votes, or face the loss of his position as leader. 
A truly social minded leader will not use fraud, deceit or trickery to 
gain his ends. Since group work aims toward social education its leaders can use 
only social methods. Anti-sccial means — hatred, cheating, etc,, lead to anti- 
social sentiments and goals. We cannot make the ends justify the means. Both must 
be social, in social education. 
The group work leader is supportive, not punitive. He tries to make it 
possible for each group member to do his best at all times. When a t?eraber fails in 
this the leader tries to analyze the reason, and to „help the member overcome the 
situation, so that he may make a better contribution to the group. It is not 
enough for the leader to feel that the group's welfare is of major concern to him. 
He must also make the group feel that he feels this way. 
The leader guides the group with more or less strength, as needed. This 
means he furnishes ideas, opinions and direction to the group when it seems to lack 
these, Ha always offers these, does net impose them. 
The group workers position is one of indirect leadership. He avoids 
becoming the center of attention because he knows that group interaction will s top 
if he does. 
By this alternating assertiveness and withdrawal he provides opportunity 
for the members to develop as much individual responsibility as possible* He makes 
them net only acceptant or appreciative of democratic techniques, but actually 
demanding of them, 
f. Qualities of Leaders. What kind of people do we seek for cur democratic 
leaders? We cannot judge by their formal education since we have not found, that 
there is any correlation at present between higher education and skilled leadership. 
We all knew very effective leaders who have very little schooling. We usually will 
find, however, that the leader has at least the equivalent education of the aver- 
age member of his group. Grc >s have a tendency to choose bright people as leaders, but it has not been demonstrated that the higher the I.Q. the mors skilled the 
leader. We all know brilliant people who seem to have no leadership ability. 
Nor is leadership ability confined to any one race, sex or economic class. It 
develops, and can be more highly developed, everywhere. 
Two characteristics are essential in leaders. One is the ability to ini- 
tiate activity to keep it going. This helps to provide the momentum and contin- 
uity necessary to group action. The other is integrity, a word difficult to 
translate. It literally means ’’wholeness’', ’’completeness” and implies inviola- 
bility. We say a man has integrity when he lives according to his principles 
which are clear to others, as well as to himself. His actions are consistent and 
therefore predictable. We usually know how he will react under a variety of 
conditions, including stress and temptation. Although we never can be entirely 
sure how a human being will act under all conditions, we have confidence that the 
man of integrity will usually live up to our expectation of him. Honesty is part 
of this picture, but not all of it. A man of integrity is always honest in high 
degree. He is also clear as to his attitude and those are founded on sufficient 
reflection of the question, not on emotional response. Integrity in a leader 
gives a group a sense of direction, as they know which way he is likely to turn 
and can prepare to follow him. 
In addition to these two essentials, there are other abilities which 
furnish good leadership. We have mentioned making the group feel the leader's 
concern for its welfare. He must not only provide for the common welfare, but put 
its needs and interests ahead of his own. He does things with the group, as part 
of it, not only for the group as a part from it. His sense of timing is good. 
He knows when to propose action to the group, when to present the groups wishes 
to those outside, or above it. 
The leader is an optimistic person. This means he sees hope of remedy- 
ing the situation, however bad it seems at present. This is based on reality and 
hope, not on foolish avoidance of facts, or on day dreaming. 
He must be able to withstand disappointment and frustration because these 
will ofte-n be his lot. More, he must support the group during it, for if he sinks 
into pessimism the group will sink, and he will lose his leadership. No one cares 
to follow a pessimistic leader. 
The leader's qualities are positive and constructive. They point upward, 
to better things. His selfless devotion to his duty as leader wins him the 
respect and affection of the group. He, respects them, too, as individuals who 
have rights which cannot be. taken away from them. 
On. such leadership the democratic idea was founded and in the development 
os such leaders group work has an important pert to play in the future. 
12 K* Program Activities for Groups 
The value of group membership is often rated by the casual observer according 
to the program of activities in progress. People say, "This is a good group, they 
have a full schedule of*worthwhile activities.” Members, too, often describe the 
group in terms of the current activity. Asked what the group is doing, they fre- 
quently say, "Hiking, conducting a clean-up campaign, studying better methods 
of farming, etc.” That activities are not the fundamentally distinguishing 
feature 0f a group we shall discuss later# A program of interesting activities is 
vital to group life. 
a. Principles. As mentioned in another discussion, since we are using group 
work as a method of social education it follows that the activities must be good: 
in themselves, that they cannot be contrary to the law nor destructive of the 
common good. Within this limitation they may be-anything the group wishes. The 
important point to remember is that they must reflect the needs and interests of 
the group. Unless they do, the group program will never get more than a half- 
hearted response from the members. The best way to insure a program meeting the 
interests of the group is to give the group responsibility for the planning. 
Simple as this sounds, many group workers and leaders appear unable to rely cn 
the group for this. 
i 
One of the reasons given is that Hthe leader knows better than the group 
what would make a good program,” It is true that a leader may be able to outline 
a series of activities that are worthwhile in themselves, but if the group does 
not feel interested, those activities will not have full participation by the 
group. For instance, the leader may decide that a study of music would be good 
for his group members. Viewed objectively, a study of music has a beneficial 
cultural effect upon most people. However, in a leisure time program one is not 
committed to doing only that which someone else thinks beneficial. The group 
might prefer to engage in a athletic program, or form a credit union, both worth- 
while pursuits, but which obviously will not elevate the level of one's musical 
knowledge. The leader must remember that regardless of how he values music, in- 
dividuals have a right to choose their leisure time activities and that many 
people lead a full and happy life with little or no appreciation of music. 
Another reason given for not referring the planning of activities to the 
group that the group does not know what it wants to do. This is sometimes true 
of children groups, but may happen in adult groups. The members want to be in 
each other's company but seem to have little idea what they can do together. In 
this case, the group worker or leader is responsible for suggesting activities 
to the group. In a world so full of social, spiritual and material needs it would 
seegi that any group of people could easily find an outlet for their time and 
energy in serving these. Not all groups have this inclination, however, but many 
look upon their free time as an opportunity to servo their own needs primarily, 
in recreation, intellectual pursuits, etc. In any case, the leader should suggest 
many possibilities to the group members but must let them choose. Only an autooral 
would insist upon imposing his ideas consistently on the group, and in doing this 
4* he would be losing the opportunity to assist the members to become free, indepen- 
dent individuals - the kind of people needed for a democratic society* Without 
freedom of choice there can be no spiritual growth, 
b. Planning, In a small group the lea«er talks directly with all the 
members and makes them feel free to suggest activities. In a large group some 
kind of program committee is needed. This may be selected according to custom; ry 
procedures, (Dealt with in another section of this course), ?/here large groups 
are divided into stable small sub-groups as in the Scout patrol system, the 
member-leaders of these sub-groups act as a program-planning committee. In any 
case, the principle remains the same. The program committee's job is to feel out 
the ideas and suggestions of all the members, coordinate these in such a way as 
to incorporate the interests of all, and present a tentative program to the whole 
group for its acceptance or rejection. If the interests of one member are not 
represented in the total program, the member will, in all likelihood, withdraw 
from the group, which is his privilege. His other choice is‘to remain in the 
group, and to try to influence other members in favor of his ideas. 
Even when the group has a number of ideas for program activities, the 
leader or group worker may still make additional suggestions. This is more 
necessary in a children’s group, where a variety of activities should be included 
and inhere the leader is responsible for widening the horizons of the members, 
(This is why we need people with a richness of ideas and backgrounds to act as 
leaders). The main thing to remember is that the leader does not impose his 
ideas or compel the group to execute them. The final choice of activity must be 
made by the group, if democracy is to prevail, 
* 
The group must have, at least one interest in common if it is to stay 
together. This may be specific, such as an interest in photography, or more 
general, such as an interest in serving the poor. Hot/ close the common interest 
brings the members to one another depends also upon the factor of homogeneity, 
discussed earlier in another session, and the degree to which the group program 
satisfies its members. Devotion to the leader is also a strong factor here and 
will frequently keep a group together in spite of so,me conflict among its members 
r 
c. Types. Since group work has as its objective the best total development 
of the individual, it is to be expected that it must emphasize those types of 
activities most likely to contribute to that development. Any activity may be 
recreational, religious, or educational. All of these develop social attitudes 
and train for citizenship. Some groups may choose one or two, others all 
three. 
All activities should instill in the members a sense of right values. 
The use of the word "right" implies a criterion. Wo instill' "right1' values when 
we help a person to esteem a thing in the ratio to which it helps him toward his 
highest purpose in life. 
14 One well understood use of group work is the cultivation of worthwhile 
hobbies. Here we emphasize those which may "grow” with the individual rather than 
those which are limited to a younger age group. Active games are excellent for 
children, but they should not overbalance even a children’s program, if we expect 
the individual to develop interest beyond the age at which physically strenuous 
activities lose their appeal. Interest in nature study, art, music, etc,, have no 
age limitations. 
We emphasize creative activities, - those which utilize original express!©: 
rather than slavish imitation. These provide the release and refreshment which 
are so important in recreation. Crafts, gardening, dramatics, writing, etc,, may 
be included here. 
Prominent among the social qualitit.es is that of selflessness. All reli- 
gions emphasize this in their doctrine, as they teach worship of a Supreme Being 
and service to one's fellow man. Altruistic activities which require one to put 
one's time, talents and energies into action for the common good are excellent in 
group work. These have an endless variety, from giving an entertainment for the 
orphanage, to building bridges for one's village. Cooperation, among members 
and with other groups should be the keynote, rather than competition, Thq stronger} 
more gifted, more able must learn to utilize their endowments for the benefit of 
the less fortunate. 
Group work, being founded on a democratic basis, stands for the dignity 
of the individual. It, therefore, recognizes the equal rights of all, regardless 
of race, nationality, creed or economic class. Activities which teach acceptance 
of individuals different from oneself have an important place in all programs. 
Even though groups are homogeneous in respect to the factors mentioned above, 
cooperative activities with other groups should be stressed, and basic principles, 
enunciated by the leader, put into practice. 
Activities which require particiapation of the whole group are better 
than those which may be done by isolated individuals, since we are teaching people 
to ¥/ork together. This applies to games, dramactics, etc,, as well as to service 
activities, 
Eating together is important for its socializing effect. A group should 
try to have light refreshments served at every meeting. 
Money has such high prestige value in modern civilization, that we cannot 
overlook the opportunity in group work to teach proper attitudes toward it. Groups 
should determine in advance what program activities they can afford, and make 
their plans accordingly. Dues, the amount of which is determined by the members, 
are collected regularly by the treasurer and deposited in a common fund, an 
accounting of which is made at every meeting. No leader or group worker may spend 
this money unless so specifically authorized by the group vote, even in a children'; 
group. In the younger age groups the money should be collected by the treasurer and turned over to the adult adviser, but may not be spent by the latter except 
as noted above. This training in the handling of group funds is an important con- 
tribution which group work makes to future citizenry* 
d. Age Groups. From years of experience with groups in various countries, 
we have learned that at certain ages certain activities have more appeal than 
others. Therefore, some general statements as to what interests we may expect to 
find, may prove of value* Note that these age ranges are approximate and should 
never be taken as exactly right for one individual. The whole range may shift up 
or down, according to the cultural pattern of the geographical region. 
Ages 7-12 has a short interest span and should have a wide variety of 
activities. Manual activities are extremely important, but those should not re- 
quire "fine” work with small tools, which may cause eye and nerve strain. This 
age group usually prefers companions of its own sex, and we rarely find coeduca- 
tional play groups. It is not particularly interested in formed "club" organiza- 
tions, except as an imitation of older groups* It cares little for parliamentary 
procedure or lengthy discussions. 
Ages 13-16. More club organization and opportunity for discussion are 
sought by this age group* There is more interest, in the opposite sex and fre- 
quently an expressed wish to have coeducational activities. The latter may be 
cooperative service projects, hikes, trips, etc,, rather than parties or dances, 
since the latter require a knowledge of social graces not always found at this age. 
The same activities found in younger groups - games, crafts, singing, etc.,, 
are enjoyed, but there is a longer attention span apd a greater definitiveness of 
purpose," "Team11 games have increased importance. 
Ages 16-20* This age group thinks of itself, and rightfully, as "youth" 
and is interested in problems as thry concern youth. It likes discussion and club 
organization. It is interested in coeducational activities and many individuals 
of this age will not join one-sex groups* It is especially interested in vocationa' 
exploration and should have frequent and informal contact with persons who can give 
advice as to the training and personal qualifications needed for different types 
of work. 
Social problems, international affairs and politics furnish topics of 
vital interest for discussion* 
Manual activities are still popular but the members are more inclined to 
do them independently, and demand of themselves a higher degree of skill* 
Personal behavior and onefs effect upon others have an absorbing interest 
for this age. Activities which provide guidance in these areas are important. 
All the above age groups should be provided with an adult guide, or 
advisor, who meets constantly with the group and helps in planning the program. 
16 Over 20* Above 20 years individuals are ordinarily regarded as adults 
and thnir group life is quite different from that of children or adolescents* 
Adults do net join groups unless the potential program of activity is one that 
interests them. The "collective" urge, which sends children into groups without 
a well-defined program is no longer a strong motivation* Adults join groups to 
learn something or to carry out an interest which they cannot do so well alone. 
Persons v;ho have had considerable group education have developed by adulthood many 
interests which they can and do carry out alone. Unless an individual has acquired 
such resources, his early group training has been faulty. 
Leadership for adult groups is provided from among the membership. The 
"advisor" has become less and less important. An organization which works with 
adults usually provides an advisor who "stands by" until the group seeks his 
guidance. If the group is a study club, the sponsoring organization should be 
able to suggest to it persons to act as discussion leaders who are well-informed 
on the subject under discussion. If the group is seeking to learn an activity, 
such as cooking, dramatics, dancing, etc,, organizations should provide 
teachers. The role of these teachers is quite different from that of the adult 
leader of a younger group, and the relationships fall more into a pattern resembl- 
ing those of an informal classroom, 
e. Use of Community Resources, Even with children’s groups the.adult 
advisor cannot expect to provide instruction and information on every subject or 
activity in which the group expresses interest. Therefore, he turns to institu- 
tions such as museums and libraries, to organizations and to other agencies in 
the community for help. Frequently, he asks a person who may be an expert in one 
subject to come into the group meetings for a limited number of visits to teach 
that subject. These people usually receive no compensation except the joy of 
sharing their enthusiasm with others who are interested. Such persons are known 
as "program volunteers," "resource persons," "program consultants," etc. They do 
not replace the leader or adviser in his role of "foremost companion" to the group. 
In seeking outside assistance we look to organizations, schools, clubs and 
tradespeople, artists, etc. When we approach them we must explain the level of 
present information found in our group, the size and age of the group and the 
approximate number of hours which we hope to have the assistant with us,' 
f. Distinctiveness of Groups, As we have seen, people all over the world, 
are interested in similar programs of activities. What, then, is the difference 
between one group program and another? Should we seek to promote and join the one 
which offers the best camping program, for example? It is safe to assume that the 
average 12-year-old in any country would enjoy experience of a well-equipped, 
well-organized where he might find a wide variety of activities designed 
to hold his interest. 
We must learn to look beyond the obvious, A far deeper distinction 
between one group program and another is the philoso phy of its leadership - the objective toward which the group is being guided. Important as activities are, 
the attitudes and opinions fostered by the leaders are still paramount, and con- 
stitute the ultimate goals towards which the group members advance, 
5. Primer of Group Work 
a. In group work we try to teach people to understand each other, to get along 
together, and to unit their efforts toward a common goal, 
\ 
b. The primary objective of group work is to develop the individual by means 
of the group, 
c. Groups are distinguished, not only by their activities, but more fundamen- 
tally by their philosophy, 
d. Groups ought to have at least one common interest and several points of 
homogeneity, 
e. The club group resembles the good family in its concern for the individual 
welfare but does not assume the prerogatives which belong solely to a family group, 
f. As with families, groups which meet often have more influence on the be- 
havior of the individual members than do those which come together only occasicna ny 
other things being equal, 
g. Club groups should be small so that the leader can know well each of the 
members. Large groups may be divided into sub-groups under the direction of an 
assistant leadey, 
h. The leader uses the interactions among group members to guide the group 
processes, 
i. It is easier to change attitudes and opinions by reason and logic when the 
group is a small one, 
j. A leader who acts consistently in the interests of one special sub-group 
is mis-using the authority which is entursted to him by the whole group, 
k. The leader must always conduct himself in a way that merits the respect of 
the group, 
1# Devotion to the leader will keep a group together in spite of dissenticns 
among the members, 
i 
ra, A leader must have (a) the ability to initiate activity, and (b) integrity 
so that the group will have confidence in his behavior under stress. n. The leader must consult the group before making any important decision 
concerning its activities, 
o. Opportunity should bo provided for the development of leadership among 
group members, 
• 
p. Cooperation rather than competition should be stressed. The more skilled 
must learn to assume responsibility for the less able, 
q. Groups ought ‘■to eat together frequently because eating is a socializing 
activity. 
r. Greatest benefits will be derived from group activities if the members 
attend meetings voluntarily, without outside compulsion, 
s. Learning to share equipment will help to develop patience and cooperation. 
Preference should be given to projects which require a combination of individual 
efforts, 
t. New program activities are developed on the basis of current knowledge of 
the needs and interests of the group members, 
u. Creative activities release tension and provide legitimate channels of 
self expression, 
v. Pleasant experiences enjoyed together will give satisfaction in group 
membership but a sense of accomplishment is also necessary, 
w. Club groups may avoid becoming too self-centered if they include service 
to others as part of their regular program, 
x. Each member-of the group must understand fully the purpose of the group 
as well as its c.de of ethics, 
y. An individual must feel at ease in a group before he can contribute 
fully to it, 
z. If an individual is not proud of belonging to a certain group, membership 
in it cannot have a beneficial effect upon him, 
aa. The average man reaches his fullest development in association with others, 
but cannot attain this in an atmosphere that is sterile or hostile, 
bb. The action of each member affects the group and in turn each member is 
affected by the action of the group* cc, In the true democracy thr Moral Law is considered superior to the opinion 
of any one group, Therefore, although the majority opinion may prevail on a 
certain question, it does not follow that this majority is in the right, 
dd. Ten persons well orgtnized can generate more dynamics thi n a hundred who 
do not have a clear idea of their goal or the means to obtain it. 
20