F as in Fat: ISSUE REPORT 2009 HOW OBESITY POLICIES ARE FAILING IN AMERICA JULY 2009 PREVENTING EPIDEMICS. PROTECTING PEOPLE. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS TRUST FOR AMERICA’S HEALTH IS A NON-PROFIT, NON-PARTISAN ORGANIZATION DEDICATED TO SAVING LIVES BY PROTECTING THE HEALTH OF EVERY COMMUNITY AND WORKING TO MAKE DISEASE PREVENTION A NATIONAL PRIORITY. The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation focuses on the pressing health and health care issues facing our country. As the nation’s largest philanthropy devoted exclusively to improving the quality of the health and health care of all Americans, the Foundation works with a diverse group of organizations and individuals to identify solutions and achieve comprehensive, meaningful, and timely change. For more than 35 years, the Foundation has brought experience, commitment, and a rigorous, balanced approach to the problems that affect the health and health care of those it serves. When it comes to helping Americans lead healthier lives and get the care they need, the Foundation expects to make a difference in your lifetime. TFAH BOARD OF DIRECTORS REPORT AUTHORS Lowell Weicker, Jr. Jeffrey Levi, PhD. President Executive Director Former 3-term U.S. Senator and Trust for America’s Health Governor of Connecticut and Associate Professor in the Department of Health Policy The George Washington University School of Public Health and Cynthia M. Harris, PhD, DABT Health Services Vice President Director and Associate Professor Serena Vinter, MHS Institute of Public Health, Florida Senior Research Associate A&M University Trust for America’s Health Patricia Baumann, MS, JD Liz Richardson Treasurer Communications Manager President and CEO Trust for America’s Health Bauman Foundation Rebecca St. Laurent, JD Gail Christopher, DN Health Policy Research Assistant Vice President for Health Trust for America’s Health WK Kellogg Foundation Laura M. Segal, MA John W. Everets Director of Public Affairs Trust for America’s Health David Fleming, MD Director of Public Health Seattle King County, Washington PEER REVIEWERS Arthur Garson, Jr., MD, MPH TFAH thanks the reviewers for their time, expertise, and insights. The Executive Vice President and Provost and opinions expressed in the report do not necessarily represent the views of the the Robert C. Taylor Professor of Health Science and Public Policy individuals or the organization with which they are associated. University of Virginia David P. Hoffman, M.Ed. Robert T. Harris, MD Director of Chronic Disease Prevention and Control for the Office Former Chief Medical Officer and Senior of Long Term Care New York State Department of Health Vice President for Healthcare BlueCross BlueShield of North Carolina Marcus Plescia, M.D. Chief, Chronic Disease and Injury Section Alonzo Plough, MA, MPH, PhD North Carolina Division of Pubic Health Director, Emergency Preparedness and Response Program Los Angeles County Department of Public Health Joe Thompson, M.D. Director of the RWJF Center to Prevent Childhood Obesity and Theodore Spencer Surgeon General Project Manager State of Arkansas Natural Resources Defense Council This report is supported by a grant from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. The opinions expressed in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the foundation. TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 SECTION 1: Obesity Rates, Related Trends, and Health Facts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 Obesity Rates and Related Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 A. Adult Obesity and Overweight Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 B. Childhood and Youth Obesity and Overweight Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 C. Physical Inactivity in Adults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14 D. Diabetes and Hypertension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 E. Obesity and Poverty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 Fast Facts about Obesity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17 F. What’s Behind the Obesity Epidemic? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 G. Obesity’s Impact on Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19 H. Obesity and Physical Inactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 I. Nutrition: The Other Side of the Energy Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 J. Economic Costs of Obesity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29 K. Weight Bias and Quality of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30 SECTION 2: State Responsibilities and Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 A. State Obesity-Related Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 B. State Obesity Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53 C. State and Community Success Stories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54 SECTION 3: Federal Responsibilities and Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57 A. Overview of Some Key Federal Agencies’ Involvement in Obesity Policy . . . . . . . . . .57 B. Federal Obesity-Related Legislation up for Reauthorization in 2009 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59 C. CDC Grants to States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63 D. Summary of the Obesity- and Disease-Prevention Initiatives in the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64 SECTION 4: Obesity and the Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65 A. The High Price of Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66 B. Food Assistance Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66 C. School Meal Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67 D. Fast Food and the Recession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67 E. Health Coverage and the Recession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68 F. Opportunities in the Midst of the Economic Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69 SECTION 5: Summer Vacation and Childhood Obesity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71 A. The Summer Slide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71 B. Nutrition Hurdles Outside of School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72 C. Summer Fitness Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72 D. Implications for Prevention Efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72 SECTION 6: Obesity and the Baby Boom Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73 A. Potential Change in the Number of Obese Adults — 65 and Older . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74 B. A State-By-State Review of Rising Obesity Rates for Adults Ages 55-64 and for Seniors Age 65 and Older . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75 C. The Potential Financial Impact of More Obese Seniors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77 D. State-By-State Medicare and Medicaid Obesity Health Care Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79 E. Disease-Prevention Programs to Control Obesity-Related Conditions and Costs . . . .80 SECTION 7: Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83 A. Making Obesity Prevention and Control a High Priority of Health Care Reform . . . . . . . .84 B. Launching a National Strategy to Combat Obesity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Appendix A: Methodology for Obesity and Other Rates Using BRFSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89 Appendix B: Methodology for Obesity Rates for Adults Ages 55-64 and for Seniors Age 65 and Older Using BRFSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90 Appendix C: Methodology for Overweight and Obesity Rates Using NSCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92 1 Introduction T he obesity epidemic is harming the health of millions of Americans and resulting in billions of additional dollars in health care costs. Rising rates of obesity over the past few decades are one of the major factors behind the skyrocketing rates of health care costs in the United States. And, U.S. economic competitiveness is hurting as our workforce has become less healthy and less productive. During the past 30 years, adult obesity rates have doubled and childhood obesity rates have more than tripled,1 while health spending has increased two percentage points faster than the Gross Domestic Product (GDP),2 growing from 8.8 percent in 19803 to a projected 17.6 percent in 2009.4 Experts estimate that more than a quarter of tended as the numbers of unemployed, unin- America’s health care costs are related to obesity.5,6 sured and underinsured continue to grow. The sharp rise in obesity has accounted for 20 to As a nation, if we made combating obesity a na- 30 percent of the rise in health care spending tional priority, we could have a tremendous pay- since 1979. Had obesity rates remained stable, off in improving health and reducing health care health care spending in America would be nearly costs. A greater emphasis is needed on develop- 10 percent lower on a per person average.7,8 ing strategies, policies, and programs to help The country will never be able to contain rates make it easier for more Americans to improve of chronic diseases and health care costs until the quality of what we eat, limit the quantity of we find ways to keep Americans healthier. But what we eat, and engage in more physical activity. right now, Americans are not as healthy as they While individuals have choices about what they eat could be or should be. Two-thirds of adults are or how active they are, these decisions are affected overweight or obese.9 The childhood obesity by factors that are beyond individual control, epidemic is putting today’s youth on course to which is why policies and resources in communi- potentially be the first generation to live shorter, ties are so important. For instance, in neighbor- less healthy lives than their parents.10 hoods with limited grocery stores or unsafe parks, This report, the sixth annual edition of F as in Fat: it is hard for people to eat healthy foods and be How Obesity Rates Are Failing in America 2009, finds physically active. Many of these factors are directly that in the past year, adult obesity rates grew in 23 related to economic circumstances. states and did not decrease in a single state. The The rising obesity rates are the result of a number number of obese adults now exceeds 25 percent of trends in the United States: in nearly two-thirds of states. In 1991, no state had an obesity rate above 20 percent. In 1980, the na- I Americans consume an average of 300 more tional average of obese adults was 15 percent. calories per day than they did 25 years ago and eat less nutritious foods; And, obesity rates are likely to grow even more I Nutritious foods are significantly more expen- in the next year due to the economic downturn, sive than calorie-dense, less nutritious foods; which has a negative impact on the health of Americans. Americans increasingly need to bal- I Americans walk less and drive more -- even for ance concerns about their pocketbooks against trips of less than one mile; managing their health. Food prices are pro- I Parks and recreation spaces are not considered jected to rise five percent to five percent in 2009, safe or well maintained in many communities; according to the U.S. Department of Agricul- I Many school lunches do not meet nutrition ture (USDA), and nutritious foods are becom- standards and children engage in less physical ing increasingly out of reach for even activity in school; middle-income families. Depression and anxi- I Increased screen time (TV, computers, video ety are linked with obesity for many, while stress games) contributes to decreased activity, par- and the strain of limited resources can make it ticularly for children; and harder for many to find the time to be physically active. At the same time, safety-net programs I Adults often work longer hours and commute and services are becoming increasingly overex- farther. 3 The obesity crisis is a national problem. The wealth of the nation requires that we treat the health and economic consequences impact the obesity problem with the urgency it deserves. entire country -- and the future health and F as in Fat 2009 The F as in Fat report examines obesity trends in On a community level, a small investment in pro- the United States, including state and federal grams to improve nutrition and physical activity policies aimed at preventing or reducing obesity can result in a big payoff in a short time frame. A in children and adults. recent study by the Trust for America’s Health (TFAH) found that an investment of just $10 per The federal government, states, and communi- person per year in proven community-based dis- ties around the country have taken action to ad- ease prevention programs could save the country dress the obesity epidemic, but -- even before more than $16 billion annually within five the precipitous economic downturn -- these ac- years.16 This is a return of $5.60 for every $1. tions were constrained due to limited resources. These policies and programs address factors This finding, which is based on an economic such as the availability or affordability of healthy model developed by the Urban Institute and an food; the safety and accessibility of parks; the extensive review of evidence-based studies by amount of time students get for physical activ- The New York Academy of Medicine, found that ity; and the nutritional quality of school lunches. such an investment could reduce rates of type 2 These efforts are aimed at helping make healthy diabetes and high blood pressure by five percent choices easier for Americans. within just two years; rates of heart disease, stroke and kidney disease by five percent within While the obesity epidemic may seem hard to five years; and rates of some types of cancer, address on a big-picture level, research shows arthritis and chronic obstructive pulmonary dis- that small changes can result in major improve- ease by 2.5 percent within 10 to 20 years. ments in the health of individuals, and these im- provements, in turn, can help to reduce health The F as in Fat report examines many promising care costs. For example: programs and efforts to reverse the obesity epi- demic. It also reviews the negative conse- I For individuals, a five percent to 10 percent quences if this epidemic continues. Obesity- reduction in total weight can lead to positive and disease-prevention programs must be health benefits, such as reducing the risk for funded at an adequate level to have a significant type 2 diabetes;11 and and long-term impact. Only then will we realize I An increase in physical activity, even without the fullest possible return on investments aimed any accompanying weight loss, can contribute at keeping Americans healthy. to significant health improvements. A physi- The report includes recommendations for a Na- cally active lifestyle plays an important role in tional Strategy to Combat Obesity, which provides a preventing many chronic diseases, including range of policies, programs and initiatives that heart disease, hypertension, and type 2 dia- could have a major impact on improving the betes.12, 13, 14, 15 health of Americans. 4 F AS IN FAT 2009: MAJOR FINDINGS Adult Obesity Rates and Trends I Adult obesity rates continued to rise in 23 states. Rates did not decrease in any state. Nearly two- thirds of states now have adult obesity rates above 25 percent. Four states have rates above 30 percent -- Mississippi, West Virginia, Alabama, and Tennessee. In 1991, no state had an obesity rate above 20 percent. In 1980, the national average of obese adults was 15 percent. I Adult obesity rates rose for a second year in a row in 16 states, and rose for a third year in a row in 11 states. Mississippi had the highest rate of obese adults at 32.5 percent. Colorado had the lowest rate at 18.9 percent and is the only state with a rate below 20 percent. I Obesity and obesity-related diseases such as diabetes and hypertension continue to remain the highest in Southern states. Eight of the 10 most obese states are in the South. In addition, all 10 states with the highest rates of diabetes and hypertension are in the South, while eight of the 10 states with the highest rates of physical inactivity are in the South. Northeastern and Western states continue to have the lowest obesity rates. I Adult diabetes rates increased in 19 states in the past year. In seven states, more than 10 percent of adults now have type 2 diabetes. I The number of adults who report that they do not engage in any physical activity rose in nine states in the past year. Four states saw a decline in the adult physical inactivity levels. I As the Baby Boomer generation ages, Medicare and Medicaid obesity-related costs are likely to grow significantly, not just because of their larger numbers, but also because this cohort has higher rates of obesity than previous generations. As the Baby Boomers become Medicare-eligible, the percentage of obese individuals age 65 and older could increase significantly, by 5.2 percent in New York and by 16.3 percent in Alabama. Child and Adolescent Obesity Rates and Trends I The percentage of obese and overweight children (ages 10 to 17) is at or above 30 percent in 30 states. Mississippi had the highest rate of obese and overweight children at 44.4 percent. Minnesota and Utah had the lowest rate at 23.1 percent. I Eight of the 10 states with the highest rates of obese and overweight children are in the South, as are nine of the 10 states with the highest rates of poverty. I Nationwide, less than one-third of all children ages 6 to 17 engage in vigorous activity, defined as participating in physical activity for at least 20 minutes that made the child sweat and breathe hard. I The percent of children engaging in daily, vigorous, physical activity ranged from a low of 17.6 percent in Utah to a high of 38.5 percent in North Carolina. State Legislation Trends I Nineteen states set nutritional standards for school lunches, breakfasts, and snacks that are stricter than current USDA requirements. Five years ago, only four states had legislation requiring these stricter standards. I Twenty-seven states have nutritional standards for competitive foods sold a la carte, in vending machines, in school stores, or in school bake sales. Five years ago, only six states had nutritional standards for competitive foods. I Every state has some form of physical education requirement for schools, but these requirements are often limited, not enforced, or do not meet adequate quality standards. I Twenty states have passed requirements for body mass index (BMI) screenings of children and adolescents or have passed legislation requiring other forms of weight-related assessments in schools. Five years ago, only four states had passed screening requirements. I Nineteen states have laws that establish programs linking local farms to schools. Five years ago, only New York had a farm to school program. I Thirty states and D.C. have some form of a snack tax. I Four states -- California, Maine, Massachusetts, and Oregon -- have enacted menu labeling legislation. I Twenty-four states have passed legislation to limit obesity liability. 5 Obesity Rates, Related Trends, and Health Facts OBESITY RATES AND RELATED TRENDS 1 SECTION M ore than two-thirds (67 percent) of American adults are either overweight or obese.17 Adult obesity rates have grown from 15 percent in 1980 to 34.3 percent in 2006 based on a national survey.18 Currently, more Americans are obese than are overweight (32.7 percent). Poor nutrition and physical inactivity are in- This is the first time the rates have not increased creasing Americans’ risk for developing major in over 25 years. Scientists and public health offi- diseases, including type 2 diabetes, which now cials, however, are unsure if the data reflect the ef- afflicts more than 10 percent of the adult popu- fectiveness of recent public health campaigns to lation in seven states. raise awareness about obesity, increased physical activity and healthy eating among children and Meanwhile, the rates of obesity among children adolescents, or if this a statistical abnormality.21 ages two to 19 have more than tripled since 1980.19 According to a 2008 analysis of data Even if childhood obesity rates have peaked, the from the National Health and Nutrition Exami- number of children with unhealthy BMIs remain nation Survey (NHANES), the number of U.S. far too high as evidenced by new data from the children who are overweight or obese may have 2007 National Survey of Children’s Health peaked, after years of steady increases. Re- (NSCH), which found that more than one-third searchers at CDC report there was no statistically of children ages 10 to 17 are obese (16.4 percent) significant change in the number of children or overweight (18.2 percent). State-specific obe- and adolescents (aged 2 to 19) with high BMI sity rates ranged from a low of 9.6 percent in Ore- for age between 2003-2004 and 2005-2006.20 gon to a high of 21.9 percent in Mississippi. OBESITY TRENDS * AMONG U.S. ADULTS BRFSS, 1991 and 2006-2008 Combined Data (*BMI >30, or about 30 lbs overweight for 5’ 4” person) 1991 2006-2008 Combined Data WA MT ND WA MT ND MN VT MN VT ME ME SD WI SD WI OR OR ID NH ID NH WY MI NY WY MI NY IA MA IA MA NE PA NE PA RI RI IL IN OH CT IL IN OH CT NV UT NJ NV UT NJ CO CO KS MO WV DE KS MO WV DE KY VA MD KY VA MD CA DC CA DC OK TN NC OK TN NC NM AR NM AR AZ AZ SC SC MS AL GA MS AL GA TX LA TX LA FL FL AK AK HI HI No Data <10% ≥10% and <15% ≥15% and <20% ≥20% and <25% ≥25% and<30% ≥30% Source: Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, CDC. 7 CHART ON OBESITY AND OVERWEIGHT RATES ADULTS Obesity Overweight Diabetes Physical Inactivity & Obesity States 2006-2008 3 Yr. Ranking Percentage 2006-2008 2006-2008 Ranking 2006-2008 Ranking Ave. Percentage Point Change 3 Yr. Ave. 3 Yr. Ave. 3 Yr. Ave. (95% Conf Interval) 2005-2007 to Percentage Percentage Percentage 2006-2008 (95% Conf Interval) (95% Conf Interval) (95% Conf Interval) Alabama 31.2% (+/-1.1)* 2 1.1 66.5% (+/-1.2)* 10.5% (+/-0.6)** 4 29.5% (+/-1.0) 6 Alaska 27.2% (+/-1.6) 18 -0.1 65.0% (+/-1.8) 6.2% (+/-0.8)** 48 21.8% (+/-1.5) 36 Arizona 24.8% (+/-1.5)** 33 1.5 61.2% (+/-1.7)** 8.2% (+/-0.8) 22 22.6% (+/-1.4) 32 Arkansas 28.6% (+/-0.9) 10 0.5 65.1% (+/-1.1) 9.0% (+/-0.5)** 12 28.8% (+/-0.9) 7 California 23.6% (+/-0.8) 41 0.5 59.7% (+/-1.0) 8.1% (+/-0.5)* 24 23.1% (+/-0.8) 27 Colorado 18.9% (+/-0.6) 51 0.4 55.3% (+/-0.8) 5.5% (+/-0.3)** 51 17.9% (+/-0.6)* 49 Connecticut 21.3% (+/-0.8) 49 0.5 59.2% (+/-1.0) 6.8% (+/-0.4) 41 20.7% (+/-0.8) 40 Delaware 27.3% (+/-1.2)*** 17 1.4 64.2% (+/-1.3) 8.3% (+/-0.6) 20 22.6% (+/-1.1) 32 D.C. 22.3% (+/-1.0) 45 0.2 55.0% (+/-1.2) 8.0% (+/-0.6) 27 21.5% (+/-1.0) 37 Florida 24.1% (+/-0.8)* 39 0.8 60.6% (+/-0.9) 8.9% (+/-0.5) 14 25.5% (+/-0.8) 14 Georgia 27.9% (+/-0.9) 14 0.4 63.9% (+/-1.0) 9.7% (+/-0.5)*** 9 24.2% (+/-0.9)^ 20 Hawaii 21.8% (+/-0.9)* 47 1.1 56.8% (+/-1.0)** 8.0% (+/-0.5) 27 19.0% (+/-0.8) 46 Idaho 24.8% (+/-0.9) 33 0.2 61.7% (+/-1.1) 7.2% (+/-0.5) 36 20.5% (+/-0.8) 42 Illinois 25.9% (+/-1.0) 27 0.6 62.7% (+/-1.1) 8.4% (+/-0.5) 18 24.5% (+/-0.9)* 18 Indiana 27.4% (+/-0.9) 16 -0.1 63.2% (+/-1.1) 8.7% (+/-0.5) 15 25.8% (+/-1.0) 12 Iowa 26.7% (+/-0.9) 22 0.4 64.0% (+/-1.0) 7.0% (+/-0.4) 37 23.1% (+/-0.8) 27 Kansas 27.2% (+/-0.7)*** 18 1.4 63.9% (+/-0.8)** 7.6% (+/-0.4)*** 32 23.7% (+/-0.7) 24 Kentucky 29.0% (+/-1.0) 7 0.6 67.4% (+/-1.1) 9.9% (+/-0.5) 7 30.4% (+/-1.0) 2 Louisiana 28.9% (+/-0.9) 8 -0.6 64.0% (+/-1.0) 10.0% (+/-0.5)** 6 30.3% (+/-0.9)^ 3 Maine 24.7% (+/-0.9)* 35 1.1 61.5% (+/-1.0) 7.7% (+/-0.5) 30 21.3% (+/-0.8) 39 Maryland 26.0% (+/-0.8)*** 25 0.7 62.2% (+/-0.9)** 8.3% (+/-0.4)** 20 23.3% (+/-0.8) 25 Massachusetts 21.2% (+/-0.6) 50 0.3 57.5% (+/-0.7)*** 7.0% (+/-0.3)** 37 21.4% (+/-0.6) 38 Michigan 28.8% (+/-0.9)*** 9 1.1 64.6% (+/-0.9)** 9.0% (+/-0.5)** 12 22.9% (+/-0.8)* 29 Minnesota 25.3% (+/-1.0) 31 0.5 62.5% (+/-1.1) 5.8% (+/-0.4) 50 16.3% (+/-0.9) 51 Mississippi 32.5% (+/-0.9)*** 1 0.8 67.4% (+/-1.0) 11.1% (+/-0.5)** 2 31.8% (+/-0.9) 1 Missouri 28.1% (+/-1.1) 13 0.7 63.9% (+/-1.3) 8.2% (+/-0.6)* 22 25.5% (+/-1.0) 14 Montana 22.7% (+/-0.9)** 43 1 60.9% (+/-1.1)** 6.5% (+/-0.4) 46 20.7% (+/-0.8) 40 Nebraska 26.9% (+/-0.9) 20 0.4 64.2% (+/-1.1) 7.4% (+/-0.4) 33 22.6% (+/-0.8) 32 Nevada 25.1% (+/-1.2)* 32 1.4 63.1% (+/-1.4)* 8.1% (+/-0.7) 24 26.4% (+/-1.2) 11 New Hampshire 24.1% (+/-0.8) 39 0.6 61.9% (+/-1.0)** 7.3% (+/-0.4) 34 20.1% (+/-0.7) 44 New Jersey 23.4% (+/-0.8) 42 0.5 61.4% (+/-0.9)*** 8.4% (+/-0.4) 18 26.7% (+/-0.8)^ 10 New Mexico 24.6% (+/-0.9)*** 36 1.3 60.2% (+/-1.1) 7.7% (+/-0.5) 30 22.7% (+/-0.9) 30 New York 24.5% (+/-0.8)** 37 1 60.2% (+/-1.0) 8.1% (+/-0.5) 24 25.6% (+/-0.9) 13 North Carolina 28.3% (+/-0.6)*** 12 1.2 64.4% (+/-0.7)** 9.2% (+/-0.3)* 11 24.2% (+/-0.6) 20 North Dakota 26.7% (+/-1.0)* 22 0.8 65.6% (+/-1.1)* 6.8% (+/-0.5) 41 23.3% (+/-0.9)* 25 Ohio 28.6% (+/-1.0)* 10 1.6 63.6% (+/-1.1) 8.7% (+/-0.4)** 15 25.0% (+/-0.9) 17 Oklahoma 29.5% (+/-0.8)*** 6 1.4 65.5% (+/-0.9)** 10.1% (+/-0.4)*** 5 30.3% (+/-0.8) 3 Oregon 25.4% (+/-1.0) 28 0.4 61.5% (+/-1.1) 6.8% (+/-0.5) 41 17.6% (+/-0.8) 50 Pennsylvania 26.7% (+/-0.8)** 22 1 62.8% (+/-1.0)* 8.7% (+/-0.5) 15 24.0% (+/-0.8) 23 Rhode Island 21.7% (+/-0.9) 48 0.3 60.6% (+/-1.2) 7.3% (+/-0.5) 34 24.1% (+/-1.0) 22 South Carolina 29.7% (+/-0.8) 5 0.5 65.5% (+/-0.9) 9.8% (+/-0.5) 8 25.5% (+/-0.8) 14 South Dakota 26.9% (+/-0.9)*** 20 0.9 64.9% (+/-1.0) 6.6% (+/-0.4) 44 24.5% (+/-0.9)** 18 Tennessee 30.2% (+/-1.3)*** 4 1.3 66.9% (+/-1.2)** 11.0% (+/-0.7) 3 29.8% (+/-1.2)^ 5 Texas 27.9% (+/-0.9) 14 0.6 64.8% (+/-1.0) 9.3% (+/-0.5)** 10 28.4% (+/-0.9) 8 Utah 22.5% (+/-0.9) 44 0.6 57.0% (+/-1.2) 5.9% (+/-0.4) 49 19.5% (+/-0.9) 45 Vermont 22.1% (+/-0.7)** 46 1 57.8% (+/-0.9)** 6.4% (+/-0.4) 47 18.5% (+/-0.7) 47 Virginia 25.4% (+/-1.2) 28 0.2 61.7% (+/-1.4) 7.8% (+/-0.6) 29 22.3% (+/-1.1) 35 Washington 25.4% (+/-0.5)*** 28 0.9 61.5% (+/-0.6)** 7.0% (+/-0.2)** 37 18.1% (+/-0.4)* 48 West Virginia 31.1% (+/-1.0) 3 0.4 67.9% (+/-1.1)** 11.6% (+/-0.6)* 1 28.3% (+/-1.0)** 9 Wisconsin 26.0% (+/-1.0) 25 0.6 63.1% (+/-1.1) 6.6% (+/-0.5) 44 20.3% (+/-0.9)* 43 Wyoming 24.3% (+/-0.8) 38 0.4 61.9% (+/-0.9) 6.9% (+/-0.4) 40 22.7% (+/-0.8)* 30 Source: Behavior Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS), CDC. To stabilize BRFSS data in order to rank states, TFAH combined three years of data (See Appendix A for more informa- tion on the methodology used for the rankings.). * & Red indicates a statistically significant change (P<0.05) from 2005-2007 to 2006-2008 (for Hypertension figures - only col- lected every two years - from 2001-2005 to 2003-2007). **State increased significantly in the past two years. ***State increased significantly in the past three years. ^ and Blue indicates a statistically significant decrease. 8 AND OVERWEIGHT RATES AND RELATED HEALTH INDICATORS IN THE STATES CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS Hypertension Poverty 2007 YRBS 2007 PedNSS 2007 National Survey of Children’s Health 2003-2007 Ranking 2005-2007 Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of High School Percentage of Obese Percentage of Ranking Percentage Participating in 3 Yr. Ave. 3 Yr. Ave. Obese High School Overweight High School Students Not Meeting Low-Income Overweight and Vigorous Physical Activity Percentage Percentage Students Students Recommended Physical Children Obese Children Every Day Ages 6-17 (95% Conf Interval) (90% Conf Interval) (95% Conf Interval) (95% Conf Interval) Activity Level Ages 2-5 Ages 10-17 33.5% (+/- 1.0) 2 15.2% (+/- 1.5) N/A N/A N/A 13.8% 36.1% (+/- 4.6) 6 36.5% (+/- 4.0) 23.9% (+/- 1.4)* 48 8.8% (+/- 1.3) 11.1% (+/-2.2) 16.2% (+/- 2.7) 57.5% N/A 33.9% (+/- 4.4) 12 30.4% (+/- 3.7) 24.2% (+/- 1.2) 46 14.7% (+/- 1.4) 11.7% (+/- 2.5) 14.2% (+/- 2.3) 68.0% 14.4% 30.6% (+/- 4.9) 26 28.5% (+/- 3.8) 31.5% (+/- 0.9)* 5 15.1% (+/- 1.6) 13.9% (+/- 2.5) 15.8% (+/- 2.3) 58.0% 14.2% 37.5% (+/- 4.2) 2 30.7% (+/- 3.3) 27.2% (+/- 0.9)** 24 12.7% (+/- 0.5) N/A N/A N/A 17.4% 30.5% (+/- 6.4) 28 30.0% (+/- 4.9) 21.7% (+/- 0.7) 50 10.3% (+/- 1.3) N/A N/A N/A 9.7% 27.2% (+/- 5.1) 42 27.6% (+/- 3.9) 25.7% (+/- 0.8)** 35 8.7% (+/- 1.2) 12.3% (+/-1.6) 13.3% (+/- 1.9) 54.9% 16.2% 25.7% (+/- 3.7) 45 22.1% (+/- 2.7) 29.2% (+/- 1.1)* 13 9.3% (+/- 1.3) 13.3% (+/- 1.6) 17.5% (+/- 1.7) 59.6% N/A 33.2% (+/- 4.1) 16 31.1% (+/- 3.5) 27.9% (+/- 1.2) 20 19.2% (+/- 1.9) 17.7% (+/- 2.0) 17.8% (+/- 2.1) 69.8% 14.6% 35.4% (+/- 4.8) 9 26.3% (+/- 3.4) 29.3% (+/- 0.9)* 12 11.7% (+/- 0.7) 11.2% (+/- 1.4) 15.2% (+/- 1.3) 61.6% 14.3% 33.1% (+/- 6.1) 17 34.1% (+/- 5.0) 29.4% (+/- 0.8)* 11 13.5% (+/- 1.0) 13.8% (+/- 2.0) 18.2% (+/- 2.1) 56.2% 14.6% 37.3% (+/- 5.6) 3 29.4% (+/- 4.1) 26.1% (+/- 0.9)* 30 8.4% (+/- 1.2) 15.6% (+/- 2.9) 14.3% (+/- 2.7) 65.7% 9.2% 28.5% (+/- 4.1) 37 28.0% (+/- 3.3) 25.4% (+/- 0.9)* 39 9.8% (+/- 1.3) 11.1% (+/- 1.7) 11.7% (+/- 2.6) 53.2% 12.2% 27.5% (+/- 3.9) 41 25.0% (+/- 3.3) 26.7% (+/- 0.9)* 28 10.7% (+/- 0.8) 12.9% (+/- 2.1) 15.7% (+/- 2.0) 56.5% 14.5% 34.9% (+/- 4.1) 10 26.1% (+/- 3.1) 28.1% (+/-0.8)* 19 11.7% (+/- 1.2) 13.8% (+/-2.0) 15.3% (+/- 1.8) 56.3% 14.1% 29.9% (+/- 4.3) 31 31.3% (+/- 3.8) 26.3% (+/- 0.8) 29 10.2% (+/- 1.4) 11.3% (+/- 3.1) 13.5% (+/- 2.2) 50.1% 14.9% 26.5% (+/- 4.3) 44 27.8% (+/- 3.6) 25.6% (+/- 0.7)** 36 12.3% (+/- 1.5) 11.1% (+/- 2.0) 14.4% (+/- 2.2_ 54.9% 13.6% 31.1% (+/- 4.2) 22 25.2% (+/- 3.1) 30.1% (+/- 0.9) 9 15.7% (+/- 1.6) 15.6% (+/- 1.7) 16.4% (+/- 1.6) 67.1% 15.6% 37.1% (+/- 4.1) 4 25.9% (+/- 3.0) 30.9% (+/- 1.0)** 7 17.1% (+/- 1.7) N/A N/A N/A 13.8% 35.9% (+/- 4.6) 7 34.0% (+/- 3.8) 27.6% (+/- 1.0)* 22 11.2% (+/- 1.5) 12.8% (+/- 2.7) 13.1% (+/- 2.4) 56.9% N/A 28.2% (+/- 3.8) 39 32.7% (+/- 3.4) 27.7% (+/- 0.8)* 21 9.0% (+/- 1.1) 10.9% (+/- 2.4) 15.2% (+/- 2.8) 69.4% 15.4% 28.8% (+/- 4.2) 36 30.7% (+/- 3.6) 25.8% (+/- 0.6)** 33 11.1% (+/- 1.1) 11.1% (+/- 1.6) 14.6% (+/- 2.0) 59.0% 16.8% 30.0% (+/- 4.6) 30 26.6% (+/- 3.3) 28.7% (+/- 0.8)** 16 12.0% (+/- 0.9) 12.4% (+/- 2.0) 16.5% (+/- 2.0) 56.0% 13.7% 30.6% (+/- 4.3) 26 33.1% (+/- 3.9) 22.6% (+/- 0.9) 49 8.5% (+/- 1.1) N/A N/A N/A 13.3% 23.1% (+/- 4.0) 50 34.8% (+/- 3.8) 34.5% (+/- 0.9)* 1 21.1% (+/- 1.8) 17.9% (+/- 2.5) 17.9% (+/- 1.9) 63.9% 15.0% 44.4% (+/- 4.3)* 1 29.0% (+/- 3.2) 29.1% (+/- 1.1)** 15 11.9% (+/- 1.2) 12.0% (+/- 3.0) 14.3% (+/- 1.5) 56.5% 13.7% 31.0% (+/- 4.1) 23 29.6% (+/- 3.4) 24.5% (+/- 0.9) 45 13.4% (+/- 1.5) 10.1% (+/- 1.1) 13.3% (+/- 1.3) 55.1% 12.1% 25.6% (+/- 3.7) 48 31.5% (+/- 3.2) 25.5% (+/- 0.8)** 37 9.9% (+/- 1.3) N/A N/A N/A 13.5% 31.5% (+/- 4.6) 21 26.2% (+/- 3.5) 26.0% (+/- 1.2) 31 10.0% (+/- 1.3) 11.0% (+/- 2.3) 14.5% (+/- 1.9) 53.8% 12.6% 34.2% (+/- 5.4)* 11 24.4% (+/- 3.7) 24.9% (+/- 0.7)* 43 5.6% (+/- 1.0) 11.7% (+/- 2.0) 14.4% (+/-2.0) 53.1% 15.8% 29.4% (+/- 3.9) 35 29.0% (+/- 3.2) 27.2% (+/- 0.7)* 24 8.1% (+/- 0.9) N/A N/A N/A 18.0% 31.0% (+/- 4.5) 23 29.1% (+/- 3.7) 24.0% (+/- 0.8)** 47 16.3% (+/- 1.8) 10.9% (+/- 2.0) 13.5% (+/- 2.1) 56.4% 12.0% 32.7% (+/- 5.0) 19 27.0% (+/- 3.7) 27.0% (+/- 0.8) 26 14.4% (+/- 0.8) 10.9% (+/- 1.1) 16.3% (+/- 1.3) 62.0% 14.6% 32.9% (+/- 4.4) 18 27.6% (+/- 3.4) 29.8% (+/- 0.7)** 10 14.1% (+/- 1.1) 12.8% (+/- 2.4) 17.1% (+/- 1.9) 55.7% 15.3% 33.5% (+/- 4.5) 14 38.5% (+/- 4.0) 25.1% (+/- 0.9)* 42 10.6% (+/- 1.4) 10.0% (+/- 1.9) 13.7% (+/- 3.3) 52.2% 13.4% 25.7% (+/- 3.3) 45 27.1% (+/- 3.0) 28.2% (+/- 0.9)* 17 12.4% (+/- 0.9) 12.4% (+/- 2.2) 15.0% (+/-3.3) 55.3% 12.1% 33.3% (+/- 4.7) 15 32.1% (+/- 3.8) 30.7% (+/- 0.7)** 8 14.7% (+/- 1.6) 14.7% (+/- 1.9) 15.2% (+/- 1.9) 50.4% N/A 29.5% (+/- 4.1) 33 29.6% (+/- 3.4) 25.5% (+/- 0.8)* 37 12.2% (+/- 1.5) N/A N/A N/A 14.5% 24.3% (+/- 3.9) 49 27.9% (+/- 3.5) 28.2% (+/- 0.8) 17 11.0% (+/- 0.8) N/A N/A N/A 10.9% 29.7% (+/- 4.8) 32 35.4% (+/- 4.4) 29.2% (+/- 1.0)** 13 10.7% (+/- 1.4) 10.7% (+/- 2.2) 16.2% (+/- 1.8) 58.1% 17.0% 30.1% (+/- 4.2) 29 27.6% (+/- 3.5) 31.3% (+/- 0.7)** 6 13.4% (+/- 1.5) 14.4% (+/- 2.9) 17.1% (+/- 2.3) 62.0% N/A 33.7% (+/- 4.2) 13 31.2% (+/- 3.4) 25.8% (+/- 0.7)* 33 10.7% (+/- 1.3) 9.1% (+/- 2.6) 14.5% (+/- 2.1) 56.0% 15.2% 28.4% (+/- 3.9) 38 25.3% (+/- 3.2) 32.1% (+/- 1.1)* 4 14.8% (+/- 1.3) 16.9% (+/- 2.0) 18.1% (+/- 2.1) 58.0% 13.5% 36.5% (+/- 4.3) 5 29.8% (+/- 3.5) 26.9% (+/- 0.7)* 27 16.4% (+/- 0.8) 15.9% (+/- 2.1) 15.6% (+/- 2.0) 54.8% 15.9% 32.2% (+/- 5.6) 20 28.9% (+/- 4.4) 20.3% (+/- 0.8) 51 9.4% (+/- 1.2) 8.7% (+/- 3.8) 11.7% (+/- 2.5) 52.5% N/A 23.1% (+/- 4.2) 50 17.6% (+/- 3.1) 24.6% (+/- 0.8)** 44 8.4% (+/- 1.3) 11.8% (+/-3.3) 14.5% (+/- 2.8) 52.0% 13.5% 26.7% (+/- 4.5) 43 36.6% (+/- 3.9) 27.3% (+/- 1.0)** 23 8.8% (+/- 0.9) N/A N/A N/A 17.4% 31.0% (+/- 4.2) 23 26.2% (+/- 3.3) 25.4% (+/- 0.4)* 39 9.4% (+/- 1.1) N/A N/A N/A 14.3% 29.5% (+/- 5.0) 33 27.6% (+/- 4.0) 33.2% (+/- 1.0) 3 15.2% (+/- 1.5) 14.7% (+/- 2.4) 17.0% (+/- 3.2) 57.2% 13.1% 35.5% (+/- 3.9) 8 33.2% (+/- 3.2) 25.9% (+/- 0.9)* 32 10.4% (+/- 1.2) 11.1% (+/- 1.6) 14.0% (+/- 1.4) 61.7% 13.1% 27.9% (+/- 3.8) 40 28.5% (+/- 3.1) 25.2% (+/- 0.8)* 41 10.5% (+/- 1.4) 9.3% (+/-1.5) 11.4% (+/- 1.4) 51.8% N/A 25.7% (+/- 4.0) 45 29.8% (+/- 3.5) Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Source: Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) 2007, CDC. YRBS data are collected every 2 years. Source: Pediatric Nutrition Surveillance 2007 Report, Table 1. Available at Percentage of People in Percentages are as reported on the CDC website and can be found at <http://www.cdc.gov/ <http://www.cdc.gov/pednss/pdfs/PedNSS_2007.pdf>. Poverty by State Using 2- HealthyYouth/yrbs/index.htm>. Note that previous YRBS reports used the term overweight Source: National Survey of Children’s Health, 2007. Overweight and Physical Activity and 3-Year Averages: 2004- to describe youth with a BMI at or above the 95th percentile for age and sex and at risk for over- Among Children: A Portrait of States and the Nation 2009, Health Resources and Services 2005 and 2006-2007 . weight for those with a BMI at or above the 85th percentile, but below the 95th percentile. Administration, Maternal and Child Health Bureau. <http://www.census.gov/ However, this report uses the terms obese and overweight based on the 2007 recommendations * & red indicates a statistically significant increase (p<0.05) from 2003 to 2007. Over hhes/www/poverty/ from the Expert Committee on the Assessment, Prevention, and Treatment of Child and Ado- the same time period, AZ and IL had statistically significant increases (p<0.05) in obesity poverty07/state.html> lescent Overweight and Obesity convened by the American Medical Association. Students not rates, while OR saw a significant decrease. Meanwhile, NM and NV experienced significant meeting recommended levels of physical activity is the difference between 100 percent and the increases in rates of overweight children between 2003 and 2007, while AZ had a decrease. percentage of students who met recommended levels of physical activity. 9 A. ADULT OBESITY AND OVERWEIGHT RATES Rates of obesity continued to rise across the rate of diabetes. Alabama, West Virginia, and Ten- country during the past year. Twenty-three states nessee also rank in the top 10 for highest rates of saw a significant increase in obesity, and 16 of physical inactivity, hypertension and diabetes. these states experienced an increase for the sec- Now, only 19 states have rates of obesity less than ond year in a row. Eleven states experienced an 25 percent, compared with 22 from last year -- increase for the third straight year. Obesity rates losing three states, Washington, Nevada and did not significantly decrease in a single state. Minnesota, to the 25-percent-or-greater cate- Last year three states -- Mississippi, Alabama, and gory. In Colorado, the only state under 20 per- West Virginia -- had obesity rates over 30 percent, cent, rates of obesity increased from 18.4 and this year Tennessee became the fourth state percent to 18.9 percent. above 30 percent. Mississippi, still ranked most The U.S. Department of Health and Human obese at 32.5 percent, is followed by Alabama at Services (HHS) set a national goal to reduce 31.2 percent, West Virginia at 31.1 percent, and adult obesity rates to 15 percent in every state by Tennessee at 30.2 percent. Mississippi also con- the year 2010. Clearly that goal will not be met as tinues to have the highest rate of physical inactiv- all states and D.C. currently exceed 15 percent. ity and hypertension, and has the second highest Southern states continue to fill the top 10 most obese states in the country, with the exception of Michigan and Ohio. States with the Highest Obesity Rates Rank State Percentage of Adult Obesity (Based on 2006-2008 Combined Data, Including Confidence Intervals) 1 Mississippi 32.5% (+/-0.9) 2 Alabama 31.2% (+/-1.1) 3 West Virginia 31.1% (+/-1.0) 4 Tennessee 30.2% (+/-1.3) 5 South Carolina 29.7% (+/-0.8) 6 Oklahoma 29.5% (+/-0.8) 7 Kentucky 29.0% (+/-1.0) 8 Louisiana 28.9% (+/-0.9) 9 Michigan 28.8% (+/-0.9) 10 (tie) Arkansas 28.6% (+/-0.9) 10 (tie) Ohio 28.6% (+/-1.0) *Note: For rankings, 1 = Worst Health Outcome. 1 = Highest Rates of Obesity. Northeastern and Western states continue to dominate the states with the lowest rates of obesity. States with the Lowest Obesity Rates Rank State Percentage of Adult Obesity (Based on 2006-2008 Combined Data, Including Confidence Intervals) 51 Colorado 18.9% (+/-0.6) 50 Massachusetts 21.2% (+/-0.6) 49 Connecticut 21.3% (+/-0.8) 48 Rhode Island 21.7% (+/-0.9) 47 Hawaii 21.8% (+/-0.9) 46 Vermont 22.1% (+/-0.7) 45 District of Columbia 22.3% (+/-1.0) 44 Utah 22.5% (+/-0.9) 43 Montana 22.7% (+/-0.9) 42 New Jersey 23.4% (+/-0.8) *Note: For rankings, 1 = Worst Health Outcome. 1 = Highest Rates of Obesity. 10 RATES AND RANKINGS METHODOLOGY This study compares data from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveil- The data are based on telephone surveys -- both to landlines, lance System (BRFSS), the largest phone survey in the world. Data and effective in 2009, to cell phones -- conducted by state health from three-year periods 2005-2007 and 2006-2008 are compared departments with assistance from CDC and involve individuals to stabilize the data by using large enough sample sizes for compar- self-reporting their weight and height. Researchers then use isons among states and over time, as advised by officials from the these statistics to calculate BMI to determine whether a person U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). In order is obese or overweight. Experts feel the rates are likely to be for a state rate to be considered an increase, the change must slightly under-reported because individuals tend to under-report reach a level of what experts consider to be statistically significant their weight and over-report their height. (p<0.05) for the particular sample size of that state. More information on the methodology of the rankings is available D.C. is included in the rankings because CDC funds D.C. to in Appendix A. conduct a survey in an equivalent way to the states. DEFINITIONS OF OBESITY AND OVERWEIGHT Obesity is defined as an excessively high amount of body fat or adipose tissue in relation to lean body mass.22,23 Overweight refers to increased body weight in relation to height, which is then compared to a standard of acceptable weight.24 BMI is a com- mon measure expressing the relationship (or ratio) of weight-to-height. It is a mathematical formula: BMI = (Weight in pounds) x 703 (Height in inches) x (Height in inches) Adults with a BMI of 25 to 29.9 are considered overweight, while Health Organization (WHO) that BMI levels be dropped to 23 those with a BMI of 30 or more are considered obese. The Na- and 25 for overweight and obesity, respectively, among Asian tional Institutes of Health (NIH) adopted a lower optimal weight populations, but no such changes have occurred. threshold in June 1998. Previously, the federal government de- I Recent studies have shown that waist circumference is an- fined overweight as a BMI of 28 for men and 27 for women. other, and perhaps better, way to determine more about the Until recently children and youth at or above the 95th per- health of an individual.29 A study conducted in 1998 and re- centile were defined as “overweight,” while children at or cently reported on by Harvard Medical School showed that above the 85th percentile, but below the 95th percentile were women with a healthy-weight BMI are more likely to suffer defined “at risk of overweight”. However, in 2007, an expert from coronary disease if their waist circumference is too committee recommended using the same cut points, but high.30 The problem that doctors have encountered is finding a changing the terminology by replacing “overweight” with formula for waist circumference, because the numbers based “obese” and “at risk of overweight” with “overweight”. The on averages do not take height into account. The International committee also added an additional cut point, BMI at or above Journal of Obesity recently reported that the waist-to-height the 99th percentile is labeled as “severe obesity”.25 ratio might be a better indicator of health, which means your waist circumference should be less than half your height.31 There are some issues and disputes surrounding the use of BMI as the primary measure for obesity. For instance, it does not Examining BMI levels, however, still is considered useful by a distinguish between fat and muscle, and individuals with a sig- number of researchers for examining trends and patterns of nificant amount of lean muscle will have higher BMIs, which do overweight and obesity. Although many experts recommend not indicate an unhealthy level of fat. assessing an individual’s health using other factors beyond BMI, such as waist size, waist-to-hip ratio, blood pressure, choles- I Other research has shown that those of African and/or Polyne- terol level, and blood sugar.32 sian ancestry may have less body fat and leaner muscle mass, suggesting higher baseline BMIs for overweight and obesity.26 Recently, an expert panel, consisting of 15 health organizations, recommended that physicians and allied health care providers I Research also has found that there may be race or ethnicity is- perform at a minimum, a yearly assessment of weight status in sues in BMI measurements. A June 2005 study found that cur- all children, and this assessment should include calculation of rent BMI thresholds “significantly underestimate health risks in height, weight, and BMI for age and plotting of those measures many non-Europeans.”27 Asian and Aboriginal groups, despite on a standard growth chart.33 “healthy” BMIs, had high risk of “weight related health prob- lems.”28 Several years ago, it was suggested to the World 11 B. CHILDHOOD AND YOUTH OBESITY AND OVERWEIGHT RATES 1. Study of 10- to 17-year olds (2007) PROPORTION OF CHILDREN AGES 10-17 CLASSIFIED AS OVERWEIGHT AND OBESE, BY STATE According to a 2007 National WA ND MT MN VT Survey of Children’s Health ME OR SD WI (NSCH), childhood overweight ID WY IA MI NY NH MA and obesity rates for children NE IN OH PA CT RI age 10-17, defined as BMI IL NV UT CO KS MO WV NJ DE greater than 85th percentile MD CA KY VA DC BMI for age group, ranged OK AR TN NC from a low of 23.1 percent in AZ NM MS AL SC Utah and Minnesota to 44.4 GA TX LA percent in Mississippi. Eight of the 10 states with the highest AK FL rates of overweight and obese HI children are in the South. The NSCH study is based on a sur- vey of parents in each state. ≥20% and <25% ≥25% and <30% ≥30% and <35% ≥35% and <40% ≥40% Source: National Survey of Children’s Health, 2007. States With Highest Rates of Overweight and Obese 10- to 17-year olds Ranking States Percentage of Overweight and Obese 10- to 17-year olds (95% CIs) 1 Mississippi 44.4% (+/- 4.3) 2 Arkansas 37.5% (+/- 4.2) 3 Georgia 37.3% (+/- 5.6) 4 Kentucky 37.1% (+/- 4.1) 5 Tennessee 36.5% (+/- 4.3) 6 Alabama 36.1% (+/- 4.6) 7 Louisiana 35.9% (+/- 4.6) 8 West Virginia 35.5% (+/- 3.9) 9 District of Columbia 35.4% (+/- 4.8) 10 Illinois 34.9% (+/- 4.1) *Note: For rankings, 1 = Worst Health Outcome. 1 = Highest Rates of Childhood Obesity. Six of the states with the lowest rates of overweight and obese 10- to 17-year olds are in the West. None of the 10 states with the lowest rates of overweight and obese children are in the South. States With Lowest Rates of Overweight and Obese 10- to 17-year olds Ranking States Percentage of Overweight and Obese 10- to 17-year olds (95% CIs) 50 (tie) Minnesota 23.1% (+/- 4.0) 50 (tie) Utah 23.1% (+/- 4.2) 49 Oregon 24.3% (+/- 3.9) 48 Montana 25.6% (+/- 3.7) 45 (tie) North Dakota 25.7% (+/- 3.3) 45 (tie) Connecticut 25.7% (+/- 3.7) 45 (tie) Wyoming 25.7% (+/- 4.0) 44 Iowa 26.5% (+/- 4.3) 43 Vermont 26.7% (+/- 4.5) 42 Colorado 27.2% (+/- 5.1) *Note: For rankings, 1 = Worst Health Outcome. 1 = Highest Rates of Childhood Obesity. 12 METHODOLOGY OF THE 2007 NATIONAL SURVEY OF CHILDREN’S HEALTH The National Survey of Children’s Health (NSCH) is a national weighted to represent the population of non-institutionalized survey conducted by telephone in English and Spanish for a sec- children ages 0-17 nationally and in each state. ond time during 2007-2008; the first administration of the survey The sampling and data collection for the 2007 NSCH were con- took place in 2003-2004. NSCH provides a broad range of in- ducted using the SLAITS program. SLAITS is an acronym for the formation about children’s health and well-being collected in a “State and Local Area Integrated Telephone Survey,” an approach manner that allows comparisons among states as well as nation- developed by the National Center for Health Statistics to quickly ally. Telephone numbers are called at random to identify house- and consistently collect information on a variety of health topics holds with one or more children under 18 years old. In each at the state and local levels. Other national surveys collected household, one child was randomly selected to be the subject of through the SLAITS program include: the National Survey of Chil- the interview. A total of 91,642 surveys were completed nation- dren with Special Health Care Needs, the National Immunization ally for children between the ages of 0-17 years. Between 1,725 Survey, and the National Survey of Early Childhood Health. and 1,932 surveys were collected per state -- all states exceeded the goal of 1,700 completed surveys. Survey results are Source: Data Resource Center for Child and Adolescent Health34 2. Study of High School Students According to the 2007 national Youth Risk Behav- In 2007, YRBS data from 39 states indicated that ior Survey (YRBS), a survey of U.S. high school stu- obesity rates among high school students ranged dents, 13 percent of students are obese and 15.8 from a low of 8.7 percent in Utah to a high of percent of students are overweight.35 Although 17.9 percent in Mississippi, with a median obe- these numbers were virtually unchanged since the sity rate of 12 percent. Overweight rates among 2005 national YRBS, the latest biennial survey did high school students ranged from a low of 11.4 reveal an upward trend from 1999 to 2007 in the percent in Wyoming to a high of 18.2 percent in prevalence of students nationwide who were Georgia, with a median overweight rate of 15 obese (10.7 percent to 13.0 percent) and who were percent. Thirty-nine states and D.C. partici- overweight (14.4 percent to 15.8 percent). pated in the survey Percentage of Obese and Overweight U.S. High School Students by Sex Obese Overweight Female 9.6% 15.1% Male 16.3% 16.4% Total 13.0% 15.8% Percentage of Obese and Overweight U.S. High School Students by Race/Ethnicity Obese Overweight White* 10.8% 14.3% Black* 18.3% 19.0% Hispanic 16.6% 18.1% Total 13.0% 15.8% *Note: Non-Hispanic Percentage of Obese and Overweight U.S. High School Students by Sex and Race/Ethnicity Obese Overweight Female Male Female Male White* 6.8% 14.6% 12.8% 15.7% Black* 17.8% 18.9% 21.4% 16.6% Hispanic 12.7% 20.3% 17.9% 18.3% Total 9.6% 16.3% 15.1% 16.4% *Note: Non-Hispanic 13 METHODOLOGY FOR THE YOUTH RISK BEHAVIOR SURVEILLANCE SYSTEM The Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS) monitors six categories of priority health-risk be- haviors among youth and young adults. The YRBSS includes national, state, and local Youth Risk Behavior Surveys (YRBS) conducted biennially among representative samples of high school students. This report includes data from the state and local surveys conducted among students in grades 9-12 during 2007. The YRBS use a two-stage cluster sample design to produce a representative sample of ninth through 12th grade students in each jurisdiction. Results are not available from every state because some do not conduct a YRBS (in 2007: California, Louisiana, Minnesota, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Washington) and some states that do conduct a YRBS did not achieve a high enough overall response rate to obtain weighted data (in 2007: Alabama, Colorado, Nebraska, New Jersey, and Oregon). TFAH reported the percentage and 95 percent confidence intervals of obese and overweight high school students based on information listed on CDC’s website http://www.cdc.gov/HealthyYouth/yrbs/. 3. Study of Low-Income Children Ages 2 to 5 (2007) A survey of low-income children ages two to five children are obese, compared with 12.4 percent called the Pediatric Nutrition Surveillance Sur- for U.S. children of a similar age.36 vey (PedNSS) found that 14.9 percent of these METHODOLOGY FOR THE PEDIATRIC NUTRITION SURVEILLANCE SURVEY TFAH used data from the Pediatric Nutrition Surveillance Survey (PedNSS) as a snapshot of obesity rates among low-income pre-school aged children. Obesity is based on the 2000 CDC gender-specific growth chart percentiles of equal to or greater than the 95th percentile BMI-for-age for children two years of age or older. These data are collected at public health clinics across the country, aggregated by the state, ter- ritorial, and tribal governments, and then reported to and published by the CDC. In addition to height and weight, data is collected on birth weight, breastfeeding, and anemia. In 2007, 44 states and D.C. par- ticipated in PedNSS, in addition to Puerto Rico and five tribal governments. Data are collected yearly and are available at http://www.cdc.gov/pednss. C. PHYSICAL INACTIVITY IN ADULTS Nine states reported an increase in physical inac- a significant decrease in physical inactivity: Geor- tivity in the past year, up from only six reporting gia, Louisiana, New Jersey, and Tennessee. an increase in last year’s report. Physical inactiv- Mississippi, the state with the highest rate of obe- ity in adults reflects the number of survey re- sity, also had the highest reported percentage of spondents who reported not engaging in physical physical inactivity at 31.8 percent. Southern activity or exercise during the previous 30 days states dominate the highest rates of physical in- other than their regular jobs. Four states showed activity with the exception of New Jersey. States with the Highest Rates of Physical Inactivity Rank State Percentage of Adult Physical Inactivity Obesity Ranking (Based on 2006-2008 Combined Data, Including Confidence Intervals) 1 Mississippi 31.8% (+/-0.9) 1 2 Kentucky 30.4% (+/-1.0) 7 3 (tie) Louisiana 30.3% (+/-0.9) 8 3 (tie) Oklahoma 30.3% (+/-0.8) 6 5 Tennessee 29.8% (+/-1.2) 4 6 Alabama 29.5% (+/-1.0) 2 7 Arkansas 28.8% (+/-0.9) 10 8 Texas 28.4% (+/-0.9) 14 9 West Virginia 28.3% (+/-1.0) 3 10 New Jersey 26.7% (+/-0.8) 42 *Note: For rankings, 1 = Worst Health Outcome. 1 = Highest Rates of Physical Inactivity. 14 Minnesota had the lowest number of inactive with the lowest rates of physical inactivity remain adults, with 16.3 percent of adults reporting they the same as last year’s report, with Idaho re- do not engage in physical activity. Nine states placing Connecticut in the 42 spot. States with the Lowest Rates of Physical Inactivity Rank State Percentage of Adult Physical Inactivity Obesity Ranking (Based on 2006-2008 Combined Data, Including Confidence Intervals) 51 Minnesota 16.3% (+/-0.9) 31 50 Oregon 17.6% (+/-0.8) 28 48 Colorado 17.9% (+/-0.6) 51 48 Washington 18.1% (+/-0.4) 28 47 Vermont 18.5% (+/-0.7) 46 46 Hawaii 19.0% (+/-0.8) 47 44 Utah 19.5% (+/-0.9) 44 44 New Hampshire 20.1% (+/-0.7) 39 43 Wisconsin 20.3% (+/-0.9) 25 42 Idaho 20.5% (+/-0.8) 33 *Note: For rankings, 1 = Worst Health Outcome. 1 = Highest Rates of Physical Inactivity. D. DIABETES AND HYPERTENSION Obesity and physical inactivity have been shown rose in 10 states and seven states experienced an to be related to a range of chronic diseases, in- increase in diabetes rates for the second straight cluding diabetes and hypertension. Eight of the year. Because hypertension is only measured 10 states with the highest rates of diabetes are every two years, the rates have not changed and also in the top 10 states with the highest obesity reflect the information from last year’s report. rates, and nine of the 10 states with the highest Last year hypertension rates rose in 38 states and rates of hypertension are also in the top 10 states 15 states had an increase in hypertension rates with the highest rates of obesity. Diabetes rates two years in a row. 1. Diabetes Nineteen states showed a significant increase in diabetes at 11.6 percent, while Colorado had the the rates of adult diabetes; of these, 15 states lowest rate at 5.5 percent. All 10 states with the showed an increase for the second year in a row. highest rates of adult diabetes are in the South, Three states -- Georgia, Kansas, and Oklahoma - and Texas replaced North Carolina in the num- - had significant increases for the third straight ber 10 spot this year. year. West Virginia had the highest rate of adult States with the Highest Rates of Adult Diabetes Rank State Percentage of Adult Diabetes Obesity Ranking (Based on 2006-2008 Combined Data, Including Confidence Intervals) 1 West Virginia 11.6% (+/-0.6) 3 2 Mississippi 11.1% (+/-0.5) 1 3 Tennessee 11.0% (+/-0.7) 4 4 Alabama 10.5% (+/-0.6) 2 5 Oklahoma 10.1% (+/-0.4) 6 6 Louisiana 10.0% (+/-0.5) 8 7 Kentucky 9.9% (+/-0.5) 7 8 South Carolina 9.8% (+/-0.5) 5 9 Georgia 9.7% (+/-0.5) 14 10 Texas 9.3% (+/-0.5) 14 *Note: For rankings, 1 = Worst Health Outcome. 1 = Highest Rates of Diabetes. 15 2. Hypertension Last year, for the third year in a row, Mississippi cent, had the lowest rate for the third year in a led the nation with the highest rate of hyper- row. All 10 states with the highest rates of hy- tension, at 34.5 percent, while Utah, at 20.3 per- pertension are in the South. States with the Highest Rates of Adult Hypertension Rank State Percentage of Adult Hypertension Obesity Ranking (Based on 2003-2007 Combined Data, Including Confidence Intervals) from a Survey Conducted Every Other Year 1 Mississippi 34.5% (+/- 0.9) 1 2 Alabama 33.5% (+/- 1.0) 2 3 West Virginia 33.2% (+/- 1.0) 3 4 Tennessee 32.1% (+/- 1.1) 4 5 Arkansas 31.5% (+/- 0.9) 10 6 South Carolina 31.3% (+/- 0.7) 5 7 Louisiana 30.9% (+/- 1.0) 8 8 Oklahoma 30.7% (+/- 0.7) 6 9 Kentucky 30.1% (+/- 0.9) 7 10 North Carolina 29.8% (+/- 0.7) 12 *Note: For rankings, 1 = Worst Health Outcome. 1 = Highest Rates of Hypertension. E. OBESITY AND POVERTY Obesity rates also appear to have some relationship South, where obesity rates are also higher, while with poverty rates in many states, although there many of the states with the lowest poverty rates are are notable exceptions. Seven of the states with the among the states with the lowest rates of obesity. highest poverty rates are also in the top 10 states The U.S. Census Bureau provided the informa- with the highest obesity rates. Nine out of the 10 tion on the three-year average poverty rates.37 states with the highest rates of poverty are in the States with the Highest Poverty Rates Poverty Rank State Percentage of Poverty (Based on Obesity Ranking 2005-2007 Combined Data with a 90% Confidence Interval) 1 Mississippi 21.1% (+/- 1.8) 1 2 District of Columbia 19.2% (+/- 1.9) 45 3 Louisiana 17.1% (+/- 1.7) 8 4 Texas 16.4% (+/- 0.8) 14 5 New Mexico 16.3% (+/- 1.8) 36 6 Kentucky 15.7% (+/- 1.6) 7 7 (tie) Alabama 15.2% (+/- 1.5) 2 7 (tie) West Virginia 15.2% (+/- 1.5) 3 9 Arkansas 15.1% (+/- 1.6) 10 10 Tennessee 14.8% (+/- 1.3) 4 *Note: For rankings, 1 = Worst Health Outcome. 1 = Highest Rates of Poverty. 16 States with the Lowest Poverty Rates Poverty Rank State Percentage of Poverty Obesity Ranking (Based on 2005-2007 Combined Data with a 90% Confidence Interval) 51 New Hampshire 5.6% (+/- 1.0) 39 50 New Jersey 8.1% (+/- 0.9) 42 48 (tie) Hawaii 8.4% (+/- 1.2) 47 48 (tie) Vermont 8.4% (+/- 1.3) 46 47 Minnesota 8.5% (+/- 1.1) 31 46 Connecticut 8.7% (+/- 1.2) 49 44 (tie) Virginia 8.8% (+/- 0.9) 28 44 (tie) Alaska 8.8% (+/- 1.3) 18 43 Maryland 9.0% (+/- 1.1) 25 42 Delaware 9.3% (+/- 1.3) 17 *Note: For rankings, 1 = Worst Health Outcome. 1 = Highest Rates of Poverty. WHY NATIONAL AND STATE DATA ARE DIFFERENT: TWO DIFFERENT SURVEYS The CDC conducts two separate information surveys about Despite these limitations, BRFSS is the best available source of health statistics. data on health trends in states and local areas. This taxpayer- supported CDC program is the only source that collects state- The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey by-state health information on a regular basis. (NHANES) is designed to study national trends and data. CDC provides BRFSS information to policymakers, including The Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance Survey (BRFSS) Congress and state officials, and to the public. CDC presents studies trends and data in each state. this information routinely through charts, its Web site, and The two studies collect information in different ways and, trend maps. These data provide the opportunity to review therefore, have different results. The number typically cited trends and patterns. Additional information with more detail, for the national adult obesity rate is 32 percent using the including sample sizes, confidence intervals, limitations, and NHANES data. This number is higher than the estimated per- data quality, is available to the public on CDC’s Web site at centage for many states, which use BRFSS. ftp://ftp.cdc.gov/pub/Data/Brfss/2008_Summary_Data_ Quality_Report.pdf. NHANES is a nationally representative survey. NHANES data are collected through in-person interviews and physician exami- Why Rank States? nations and obesity is calculated using these actual height and TFAH provides state rankings to better inform policymakers weight measurements, rather than self-reported data. Because and the public about obesity trends in the United States. The of this, NHANES is often referred to as the “gold standard.” information allows people to gain a better understanding of BRFSS is based on state rather than national representation and is patterns in rising obesity rates. State rankings also help a telephone survey where respondents self-report their height, demonstrate the varying levels of concern and action weight, and other health information. According to CDC, BRFSS addressing obesity in different areas of the country. Due to is the largest phone survey in the world. Because data show that annual variations in the data, and based on advice from CDC women are more likely to report that they weigh less than they officials, TFAH stabilizes the data by combining three years. do while men are more likely to say that they are taller than they This is similar to how NHANES combines three years of data are, it is commonly believed that BRFSS underreports obesity.38 to stabilize any anomalies. Fast Facts about Obesity The information presented in the second half of lescents; a summary of the 2008 Physical Activity this section is intended to serve as a quick refer- Guidelines and trends in physical activity; a sum- ence guide to the issue of obesity and overweight mary of the 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Ameri- in the United States. The section contains a sum- cans and trends in Americans’ eating habits; mary of the many factors that influence nutrition details on the economic costs of obesity; and, fi- and physical activity, including those which can nally, a summary of the bias and discrimination be shaped by changes in federal, state, and local faced by those who are overweight and/or obese. policies. There is also information on the health The original citation for each fact is available at impact of obesity on adults, children and ado- the end of the report. 17 F. WHAT’S BEHIND THE OBESITY EPIDEMIC? MANY ISSUES INFLUENCE NUTRITION AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY BEHAVIORS Food Choices and Changes Marketing and Advertising I Higher caloric intake -- Adults consumed ap- I More advertising and marketing of unhealthy proximately 300 more calories daily in 2002 foods, particularly to kids. than they did in 1985.39 I Marketing of “fad” diets. I Higher caloric density of foods. I Limited access to supermarkets and nutri- Workplaces Not Conducive to Health tious, fresh foods in many urban and rural I Many desk jobs limit or discourage activity, neighborhoods. part of the sedentary lifestyle. I “Portion distortion,” or the rise of bigger por- I Worksites typically not designed to foster tions. movement. I “Value sizing” or placing a higher value on the I Limited opportunities for physical activity or amount of food versus the quality of food. recreation during the work day. I Less in-home cooking and more frequent re- I Unhealthy options in cafeterias or work lunch liance on take-out food and eating in restau- sites. rants. I Lack of bike racks and/or shower facilities dis- I The proliferation of microwaves and faster, courage active transportation. easier to prepare foods. Economic Constraints Schools I Health insurance coverage for obesity-preven- I A variety of food and beverage options are tion services is often limited or not available. available throughout the school day including I People without health insurance often do not soda, fruit drinks that are not 100% juice, and receive either appropriate preventive services foods that are high in calories, fat and sodium, or follow-up care. but low in nutritional value. These foods and I “Value sizing” of less nutritious foods, and the beverages are available at venues such as a la higher costs of many nutritious foods. carte lines, school stores, vending machines, fundraisers, and classroom parties. I Expense of and taxes on gym memberships, exercise classes, equipment, facility use, and I Reduction in the amount of physical educa- sports league fees. tion, recess, and recreation time. I Lower-income neighborhoods have fewer and I Few safe routes to school that encourage kids to smaller grocery stores and less access to afford- walk and bike. able fruits and vegetables. I Limited health education classes. I Lack of opportunities to participate in physical Family and Home Influences activity. I Influence of other family members’ habits on eating and exercise patterns. Communities Design I “Electronic culture” options for entertainment I Communities designed to foster driving and free time, including TV, video games, and rather than walking or biking. the Internet. I Lack of public transportation options. I More people working outside the home or far I No sidewalks or poor upkeep of sidewalk in- from home. frastructure. I Walking areas often unsafe or inconvenient. Limited Time I Limited parks and recreation space, including I Long work hours mean more meals – many indoor facilities. of them high in calories – are eaten outside of the home. I Poor upkeep and security in local parks. I Car time and commuting cut into free time I Lack of affordable indoor physical activity options. that could be used for physical activity. 18 RISK FACTORS AND OTHER ISSUES THAT AFFECT WEIGHT GAIN Genetics, Physiology, and Life Stages The Environment and Obesity I Metabolism. Recent studies show a potential link between I Childbearing. exposure to chemicals used in plastics and child- hood obesity.40 Two separate studies of children I Increased risk factors for obesity and related in East Harlem and surrounding areas found that diseases in children with obese parents, par- the chemical phthalates are an endocrine disrup- ticularly mothers. tor. Phthalates are absorbed into the body and I Aging factors, including menstruation, pre- then affect glands and hormones that regulate menopause, and menopause for women. many bodily functions. In order to measure the I Weight-gain as a side effect from some com- amount of exposure researchers tested the lev- monly used medications such as insulin, anti- els in the children’s urine, and they found that retrovirals, antidepressants, oral contraceptives, the heaviest children had the highest levels of and injectable contraceptives. phthalate. The study also revealed levels of ph- thalates significantly higher than the average lev- Psychology els in children across the United States. I Body image concerns. The findings of the study do not prove that the I Consumers’ frustration with conflicting nutrition chemicals definitively cause obesity, nor did they information and advice. find a causal connection, but they do show a link I Eating to combat stress. between phthalates and obesity. This link points to the importance of understanding and investigat- I Turning to eating as a replacement for smoking ing how environmental factors can affect health. or other unhealthy behaviors. G. OBESITY’S IMPACT ON HEALTH HEALTH IMPACT OF OBESITY AND PHYSICAL INACTIVITY Below are some key findings based on a range of I Diabetes is the seventh leading cause of death research into the health impact of obesity. Physical in the U.S. and accounts for 11 percent of all activity has been shown to have a role in reversing U.S. health care costs.45 or preventing many of these health problems. I CDC projects that 48.3 million Americans will have diabetes by 2050.46 Type 2 Diabetes I Over the past 10 years, the number of newly I Approximately 176,500 individuals under the diagnosed diabetes cases in the United States age of 20 have diabetes.47 nearly doubled from 4.8 per 1,000 in 1995-1997 I Two million adolescents aged 12-19 have pre- to 9.1 per 1,000 in 2005-2007.41 diabetes.48 I More than 80 percent of people with type 2 I The National Institute of Diabetes and Diges- diabetes are overweight.42 tive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) found that I More than 20 million adult Americans have a seven percent weight loss together with diabetes.43 moderate levels of physical activity (walking 30 minutes a day, five days a week) decreased the I Another 57 million Americans are pre-diabetic, number of new type 2 diabetes cases by 58 which means they have prolonged or uncon- percent among people at-risk for diabetes.49 trolled elevated blood sugar levels that can contribute to the development of diabetes.44 19 THE EMERGING TREND OF TYPE 2 DIABETES IN CHILDREN Type 2 diabetes is a chronic disease that ac- other primary research goals included: assessing counts “for about 90 to 95 percent of all diag- how type 1 and type 2 diabetes differ in children; nosed cases of diabetes. It usually begins as learning about the possible long-term health insulin resistance, a disorder in which the cells complications of diabetes in children and adoles- do not use insulin properly. As the need for in- cents; investigating how children are being sulin rises, the pancreas gradually loses its abil- treated for diabetes; and determining the quality ity to produce it.”50 of life of diabetic children and adolescents.54 The American Diabetes Association describes Initial results from the study show that while type type 2 diabetes as a “new epidemic” among 1 diabetes remains the most common form of American children.51 T raditionally a disease of diabetes among children and adolescents, type 2 mature adults, type 2 diabetes now accounts for diabetes becomes more common after the age eight to 45 percent of new pediatric diabetes of 10, with minority children more affected than cases, depending on geographic location.52 Al- non-Hispanic white children.55 A phase II study is though there are a number of genetic risk fac- underway and will wrap up in 2009. tors, obesity is largely driving the increase in type According to Francine Ratner Kaufman, former 2 diabetes among children. The problem is espe- president of the American Diabetes Associa- cially severe among children and youth of African, tion, “there is no doubt that the emergence of Hispanic, Asian, or American-Indian ancestry.53 this epidemic in children and young adults is a In 2000, Search for Diabetes in Youth, a five-year, major public health problem.”56 The Associa- $22 million research project funded by CDC and tion calls on schools and communities to take the NIDDK, was launched to identify the num- an active role in the prevention of type 2 dia- ber of children under age 20 with diabetes by betes in children by encouraging physical activ- type, age, sex, and race or ethnicity. Search’s ity and improving eating habits. Heart Disease and Stroke kidney. Overweight is also linked with uterine I People who are overweight are more likely to and postmenopausal breast cancer in women.”64 suffer from high blood pressure, high levels of I Approximately 20 percent of cancer in women blood fats, and LDL, or bad cholesterol, which and 15 percent of cancer in men is attributable are all risk factors for heart disease and stroke.57 to obesity.65 I Physically inactive people are twice as likely to I Cancer is the second leading cause of death in develop coronary heart disease as regularly the United States.66 active people.58 I It is unknown why being overweight can increase I Heart disease is the leading cause of death in the cancer risk. One theory is that fat cells may af- United States, and stroke is the third leading cause.59 fect overall cell growth in a person’s body.67 I One in four Americans has some form of car- diovascular disease.60 Neurological and Psychiatric Diseases I Heart disease can lead to a heart attack, conges- I Obesity may increase adults’ risk for having de- tive heart failure, sudden cardiac death, angina mentia. A review of 10 published studies found (chest pain), or abnormal heart rhythm.61 that people who were obese at the beginning of the studies were 80 percent more likely to later I A stroke limits blood and oxygen to the brain develop Alzheimer’s disease than those adults and can cause paralysis or death.62 who had a normal weight at enrollment.68 I One in three adults has high blood pressure. I An analysis of data from a health survey of Roughly 30 percent of cases of hypertension more than 40,000 Americans found a correla- may be attributable to obesity, and in men tion between depression and obesity. Accord- under 45 years of age, the figure may be as ing to the results, obese adults were more high as 60 percent.63 likely to suffer from depression, anxiety and other mental health conditions than normal- Cancer weight adults.69 The odds of suffering from any I People who are overweight “may increase the mood disorder rose by 56 percent among risk of developing several types of cancer, in- obese individuals (30 ≤ BMI ≤ 39.9) and dou- cluding cancers of the colon, esophagus, and bled among the extremely obese ( BMI ≥ 40).70 20 Kidney Disease I Severely overweight and obese children often I Obese individuals (BMI ≥ 31) are 83 percent suffer from depression, anxiety disorders, iso- more likely to develop kidney disease than nor- lation from their peers, low self-esteem, and mal weight individuals (18.5<BMI<25), while eating disorders.80 overweight individuals (25< BMI≤30) are 40 I The number of fat cells a person has is deter- percent more likely to develop kidney disease.71 mined by late adolescence; although over- I An estimated 24.2 percent of kidney disease weight and obese children can lose weight cases among U.S. men and 33.9 percent of they do not lose the extra fat cells.81 cases among women are related to overweight I Young girls who are overweight and/or obese and obesity.72 suffer a variety of significant health conse- quences, including menstrual disturbances, Arthritis such as early onset menstruation, and are I Obesity is a known risk factor for the more likely to suffer from polycystic ovary development and progression of syndrome (PCOS).82 osteoarthritis of the knee and possibly of I Researchers calculated that a ban on fast-food other joints. For example, obese adults are advertising during children’s television pro- up to four times more likely to develop gramming could reduce by 18 percent the osteoarthritis of the knee than normal-weight number of overweight children ages three to adults.73 11 and could reduce by 14 percent the num- I Among individuals who have received a doc- ber of overweight children ages 12 to 18.83 tor’s diagnosis of arthritis, 68.8 percent are overweight or obese.74 Obesity and Pregnancy I For every pound of body weight lost, there is a I There is a growing body of evidence document- four percent reduction in knee joint stress ing the links between maternal health condi- among overweight and obese people with tions, such as obesity and chronic diseases, and osteoarthritis of the knee.75 increased risks before, during and after birth.84 I Many pregnant women are overweight, obese, Obesity and Children’s Health or have diabetes, all of which can have negative I Nearly 32 percent of U.S. children and ado- effects on the fetus, as well as the mother. Ac- lescents are overweight or obese (at or above cording to CDC, in 2002 approximately 50 the 85th percentile of BMI for age).76 percent of women of child-bearing age (be- tween 18 and 44) were either overweight or I Approximately 60 percent of obese children obese; three percent experienced high blood aged five to 10 years had at least one cardio- pressure and nine percent had diabetes.85 vascular disease (CVD) risk factor -- such as elevated total cholesterol, triglycerides, in- I Teenage mothers who are obese before preg- sulin, or blood pressure -- and 25 percent had nancy are four times more likely than their two or more CVD risk factors.77 normal-weight counterparts to develop gesta- tional diabetes -- a form of diabetes that I The American Academy of Pediatrics issued arises during pregnancy and raises a woman’s new guidelines in July 2008 recommending risk of developing type 2 diabetes later on.86 cholesterol screening of children as young as age two and adolescents with a family history I CDC and Kaiser Permanente Northwest Cen- of high cholesterol or heart disease. The ter for Health Research found in a recent study new guidelines also recommend screening that obesity during pregnancy is associated children whose family history is unknown or with an increased use of health care services those who have other factors for heart dis- and longer hospital stays.87 The study of more ease including obesity, high blood pressure, than 13,000 pregnancies, found that obese or diabetes.78 women required more outpatient medications, were given more obstetrical ultrasounds and I Childhood weight problems can lead to were less likely to see nurse midwives or nurse complications such as elevated blood practitioners in favor of physicians. Cesarean pressure and cholesterol, joint delivery rates were 45.2 percent for extremely problems, type 2 diabetes, gallbladder obese women, compared with 21.3 percent disease, asthma, depression, and anxiety.79 for normal-weight women.88 21 MENTAL HEALTH, STRESS AND OBESITY Adults In addition, according to the 2003 National There is growing evidence documenting the asso- Survey of Children’s Health, overweight ciation between obesity and poor mental health. adolescents, when compared with those who Researchers in the Adult and Community Health were not overweight, had significantly higher division of CDC analyzed 2006 BRFSS data and odds of having parent-reported mental health or found that depression and anxiety are associated behavior problems:96 with obesity.89 Adults currently or previously di- I 60 percent higher odds of having diagnosed agnosed with depression were 60 percent more anxiety or depression; likely to be obese, and those with anxiety disor- ders were 30 percent more likely to be obese I 40 percent higher odds of having feelings of than their non-depressed counterparts.90 Adults worthlessness; with depression or anxiety were also less likely to I 40 percent higher odds of parental concerns engage in regular physical activity.91 about their children’s self-esteem; A separate study analyzing data from more than I 70 percent higher odds of being told by a 41,000 Americans who participated in the Na- doctor that they have behavior problems; tional Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Re- lated Conditions found that adults with high BMI I 30 percent higher odds of being withdrawn; and (BMI ≥ 30) were more likely to suffer from mood, I 40 percent higher odds of bullying others. anxiety, and personality disorders than people of normal weight (18.5 ≤ BMI < 25) .92 Even individ- The study concludes that mental health problems uals in the moderately overweight category (25 ≤ must be considered in any strategies to address BMI < 30) were at an elevated risk of anxiety dis- youths who may be obese, and that understanding orders compared with those of normal weight.93 cultural differences among racial and ethnic groups must be factored in to public health decisions.97 The significant associations between obesity and poor mental health have led CDC researchers Stress and Obesity to “suggest that public health interventions A 2007 study found a direct connection between should address mental and physical health as a stress and obesity. Scientists performing studies combined entity and that programs to simulta- on mice found a chain of molecular events that neously improve people’s mental and physical link chronic stress with obesity. The study found health should be developed and implemented.”94 that when stressed and non-stressed mice were fed the same, high-calorie diet, the stressed mice Adolescents gained twice as much fat.98 According to the The National Alliance to Advance Adolescent study, the long-term combination of stress and a Health analyzed the 2007 YRBSS and found that high-fat/high-sugar diet will lead to obesity and compared with normal-weight students, obese metabolic syndrome symptoms such as students are 32 percent more likely to have actu- hypertension and glucose intolerance.99 In ally attempted suicide, to have seriously consid- addition to the traditional methods of weight ered suicide, or to have made a plan to attempt loss, researchers suggested also including stress- suicide. Obese students, compared with those reduction therapy and a neuropeptide Y of normal weight, are 20 percent more likely to receptor inhibitor to induce fat “melting.”100 have persistent feelings of hopelessness.95 BINGE EATING DISORDER AND OBESITY Binge eating disorder is a classified psychiatric a much higher prevalence, 25 percent or more, disorder that affects more than seven million has been reported by patients who are obese adults in the United States.101 Binge eating is a or seeking help for weight loss.103 Because compulsive pattern of regular bingeing of un- long-term weight management is more likely in usually large amounts of food and complete an individual who is able to control eating pat- loss of control over one’s eating patterns.102 terns, physicians treating obese patients need While only one to three percent of the general to address the behavioral and psychological population is affected by binge eating disorder, components of binge eating disorders.104 22 H. OBESITY AND PHYSICAL INACTIVITY U.S. GUIDELINES FOR PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans105 Adults Adults with disabilities I The 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for I Adults with disabilities who are able to should Americans recommend adults engage in a get at least two-and-a-half hours of moderate minimum of two-and-a-half hours each aerobic activity per week, or one-hour-and-15 week of moderate-intensity exercise or minutes of vigorous aerobic activity per week. one-hour-and-15 minutes of vigorous I Adults with disabilities should incorporate mus- physical activity. cle-strengthening activities involving all major L Brisk walking, water aerobics, ballroom muscle groups two or more days per week. dancing and general gardening are exam- I Adults with disabilities who are not able to ples of moderate-intensity aerobic activi- meet the 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines ties. Vigorous-intensity aerobic activities for Americans, should engage in regular include race walking, jogging or running, physical activity according to their abilities swimming laps, jumping rope, and hiking and should avoid inactivity. uphill or with a heavy backpack. I Aerobic activity should be performed in People with chronic medical conditions episodes of at least 10 minutes. I Adults with chronic conditions get important I For more extensive health benefits, adults health benefits from regular physical activity. should increase their aerobic physical activity They should do so with the guidance of a to five hours per week of moderate-intensity health care provider. or two-and-a-half hours per week of Children and adolescents vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity. I Children and adolescents should do 60 minutes I Adults should incorporate muscle (one hour) or more of physical activity daily. strengthening activities, such as weight training, push-ups, sit-ups, carrying heavy L Aerobic: Most of the 60 or more minutes loads or heavy gardening, at least two days a day should be either moderate- or vig- per week. orous-intensity aerobic physical activity, and should include vigorous-intensity Older adults physical activity at least three days a I Older adults should follow the guidelines for week. Examples of moderate intensity other adults when it is within their physical aerobic activities include hiking, skate- capacity. If a chronic condition prohibits boarding, rollerblading, bicycle riding, and their ability to follow those guidelines, they brisk walking. Vigorous intensity aerobic should be as physically active as their activities include bicycle riding, jumping abilities and conditions allow. If they are at rope, running and sports such as soccer, risk of falling, they should also do exercises basketball, and ice or field hockey. that maintain or improve balance. L Muscle-strengthening: As part of their 60 or more minutes of daily physical activity, chil- Pregnant women dren and adolescents should include muscle- I During pregnancy and the time after deliv- strengthening physical activity on at least ery, healthy women should get at least two- three days of the week. Examples include and-a-half hours of moderate-intensity rope climbing, sit-ups, and tug-of war. aerobic activity per week, preferably spread L Bone-strengthening: As part of their 60 or throughout the week. more minutes of daily physical activity, chil- I Pregnant women who habitually engage in dren and adolescents should include bone- vigorous aerobic activity or who are highly strengthening physical activity on at least active can continue during pregnancy and three days of the week. Examples include the time after delivery, provided they re- jumping rope, running, and skipping. main healthy and discuss with their health I It is important to encourage young people care provider how and when activity should to participate in physical activities that are be adjusted over time. appropriate for their age, that are enjoyable, and that offer variety. 23 TRENDS IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY Adults Youth I The World Health Organization estimates that I Current physical activity guidelines for children 1.9 million deaths worldwide are attributable and adolescents recommend engaging in 60 to physical inactivity. Chronic diseases minutes or more of moderate to vigorous phys- associated with physical inactivity include ical activity per day; however, studies show that cancer, diabetes, and coronary heart disease.106 most youth do not meet that standard.119 I Currently, more than 22 percent of adult I At age nine, children engaged in moderate-to- Americans say they do not engage in any vigorous physical activity (MVPA) approximately physical activity.107 three hours per day on both weekends and I More than half of adults report they do not weekdays, according to a July 2008 study pub- participate in CDC’s recommended level of lished in the Journal of the American Medical physical activity, which includes either 30 Association. However, by age 15, adolescents minutes or more of moderate physical activity were only engaging in MVPA for 49 minutes per five or more days per week, or 20 minutes or weekday and 35 minutes per weekend day.120 more of vigorous physical activity for three or I Nationwide, only 35 percent of high school stu- more days per week.108 The minimum level dents met the recommended levels of physical of recommended activity is equivalent to activity, according to the 2007 YRBSS. The rec- walking two miles at a pace of three to four ommended levels include any kind of physical ac- miles per hour.109 tivity that increased their heart rate and made I Sixty percent of adults are not sufficiently them breathe hard some of the time for a total of active to achieve health benefits.110 at least 60 minutes per day on five or more days during the past seven days before the survey.121 I Physical inactivity accounts for about 16 percent of all deaths in both women and men.111 L Sixty-five percent of high school students did not meet the recommended levels of I Health care costs for sedentary patients physical activity during five of the previous compared with physically active patients are seven days, according to the 2007 YRBSS. $1,500 more per year.112 I Furthermore, nearly 25 percent of high school I Studies suggest that moderate to high levels of students did not participate in 60 or more physical activity substantially reduce, or even minutes of any kind of physical activity that eliminate, the mortality risk of obesity.113 increased their heart rate and made them I Studies have shown that individuals who are breathe hard some of the time on any day obese and physically fit have a lower risk of during the seven days before the survey.122 dying than individuals who are normal weight I Only 54 percent of high school students had but who are unfit.114 physical education class at least once a week; I Participating in leisure time physical activity only 30 percent had daily physical education, declines as age increases.115 according to the 2007 YRBSS.123 I Women are less likely to engage in moderate I Nearly 25 percent of high school students or vigorous physical activity.116 played video or computer games or used a com- I African American and Hispanic adults are less puter for something other than school work for likely to be physically active than white adults.117 three or more hours per day on an average I The Surgeon General advises that to be school day, according to the 2007 YRBSS.124 beneficial, physical activity can be continuous or I Thirty-five percent of high school students intermittent, should be moderately or watched television three or more hours on an av- vigorously intense, and can be acquired through erage school day, according to the 2007 YRBSS.125 leisure-time exercise or through everyday I A review of 26 published studies on school- activities such as cleaning the house or raking based physical activity interventions suggest that the lawn.118 these programs are effective in increasing the du- ration of physical activity, reducing blood choles- terol and time spent watching television, and increasing physical fitness levels.126 24 THE IMPACT OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT ON NUTRITION AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY Nutrition I A 2003 study showed a direct relationship be- I A separate study published in 2009 determined tween living near at least one supermarket and that students are more likely to be overweight meeting the U.S. Dietary Guidelines for fruit or obese if their school is located within one and vegetable intake. The presence of each half-mile of a fast-food restaurant.130 additional supermarket was related to a 32 percent increase in fruit and vegetable con- Physical Activity sumption among African Americans and an 11 I Children and youth living in neighborhoods percent increase among white Americans.127 with more green space, such as parks, playing fields, trails, and school yards, were less likely I Residents of rural, low-income, and minority to be overweight than their counterparts in communities are most affected by poor access less-green neighborhoods.131 to supermarkets, chain grocery stores, and healthful food products.128 I Children who live near parks and recreation areas are more active, according to a Canadian I A fast-food restaurant within 500 feet of a school study of children ages eight to 10. For every may lead to at least a five percent increase in the additional park located within half a mile of obesity rate at that school, according to a 2009 their home, the likelihood of walking to school study by economists at Columbia University and more than doubled among girls and leisure the University of California, Berkeley.129 walking by boys increased by 60 percent.132 L The study also found that pregnant women who lived within a tenth of a mile of a fast-food restaurant had a 4.4 percent increase in the probability of gaining more than 44 pounds. “EXERCISE IS MEDICINE” INITIATIVE “. . . (M)ORE AND MORE AMERICANS WILL HEAR FROM A VOICE THEY TRUST THAT EX- ERCISE IS IMPORTANT, EXERCISE IS MEDICINE. INDEED, EXERCISE IS NOT AN OPTION, BUT A NECESSARY, ACTIVE, DIRECT WAY THAT PEOPLE CAN MAINTAIN GOOD HEALTH, AVOID ILLNESS, IMPROVE THE QUALITY OF THEIR LIVES, REDUCE THEIR HEALTH CARE COSTS AND EXTEND THEIR LIFE EXPECTANCY.” — RONALD DAVIS, M.D., PRESIDENT OF THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION133 In November 2007, the American College of A few goals of the initiative include: Sports Medicine and the American Medical As- I Increase research and studies dedicated to sociation came together in an effort to increase examining the effects of fitness and physical physical activity among Americans. The initia- activity on health; tive, known as “Exercise is Medicine”, is cen- tered on the theory of including exercise and I Create a system whereby physicians are able physical activity as a prescription from physician to refer patients to a “fitness specialist” and to patient. Exercise and physical activity are get reimbursed for their services; and considered integral parts of an overall health I Educate physicians of all specialties about plan, and are key components of a health plan screening patients for fitness and physical ac- designed to prevent chronic diseases and im- tivity levels. prove quality of life. 25 I. NUTRITION: THE OTHER SIDE OF THE ENERGY BALANCE 2005 DIETARY NUTRITION GUIDELINES FOR AMERICANS134 Key Recommendations I Consume three or more ounce-equivalents of I Consume a variety of nutrient-dense foods whole-grain products per day. At least half of and beverages within and among the basic grain intake should come from whole grains. food groups while picking foods that limit the I Consume three cups per day of fat-free or intake of saturated and trans fats, cholesterol, low-fat milk or milk products. added sugars, salt, and alcohol. I Increase dietary intake of calcium, potassium, I Eat more dark green vegetables, orange fiber, magnesium, and vitamins A, C, and E. vegetables, legumes, fruits, whole grains, and low-fat milk and milk products. Specific Recommendations for Children and Adolescents I Eat less refined grains, total fats, sodium, added sugars, and calories. I At least half of grains consumed should be whole-grain. Children ages two to eight should Specific Recommendations for Adults consume two cups per day of fat-free or low- I Consume two cups of fruit and two-and-a- fat milk or milk products and children age nine half cups of vegetables per day for a 2,000- and older should drink three cups per day. calorie intake. I Increase dietary intake of calcium, potassium, fiber, magnesium, and vitamin E. 26 AMERICANS’ UNHEALTHY EATING HABITS Obesity is the result of a chronic energy imbalance: Fewer fruits, vegetables, and whole grains people who suffer from overweight and obesity I Consumption of fruits and vegetables in the consume more calories than they burn off in physi- United States increased by 19 percent from cal activity. Efforts to encourage people to change 1970 to 2005; however, Americans still are not eating habits, however, are as complex as trying to meeting the Dietary Guidelines’ recommenda- motivate people to be more physically active. tions of two cups of fruit and 2.5 cups of veg- Healthy nutrition, as with physical activity, has a etables per day.141 positive effect on people’s health no matter how I A 2003 USDA report examining Americans’ much they weigh. According to an article pub- food consumption patterns described America’s lished by the National Institute for Health Care per capita fruit consumption as “woefully low” Management, “for most Americans, a healthy and limited to a small range of fruit options, and diet means: smaller portions (fewer calories, stated that vegetable consumption “tells the minimal saturated and ‘trans’ fats, few sweets same story.”142 and low fiber carbohydrates (think desserts and sodas), and more fruits and vegetables.”135 I Americans are eating more than double the recommended amount of refined grains per Instead, the American diet has skewed towards day while eating a third of the recommended large portion sizes that are high in fat and amount of whole grains.143 calories. The USDA reports that Americans are not meeting the 2005 Dietary Guidelines for More sugar Americans. In order to meet them, Americans I “Added sugar” consumption is nearly three would need to substantially lower their intake of times the USDA recommended intake.144 added fats, refined grains, sodium, and added sugars and sweeteners and increase their I Average consumption of added sugars increased consumption of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, 22 percent from the early 1980s to 2000. 145 and low-fat milk and milk products.136 I Children who reduced sugar by the equivalent of Some changes to the eating habits of Americans one can of soda per day had improved glucose over the past few decades include: and insulin levels. This means that by eliminating one can of soda per day, parents can reduce the More calories risk of type 2 diabetes in their children, regard- I Adults consumed approximately 300 more less of any other diet or exercise changes.146 calories daily in 2002 than they did in 1985.137 More dietary fat I Women ages 20-74 consumed nearly 22 I Americans consumed an average of 600 calories percent more calories in 1999-2000 than they worth of added fats per person per day in 2000.147 did in 1971-74; men consumed nearly seven percent more calories.138 A drop in drinking milk and a large increase in drinking soda and fruit juice I Adolescent females ages 12-15 consumed approximately four percent more calories in I Milk consumption dropped 39 percent from 1999-2000 than they did in 1971-74; those 1977 to 2001 for children ages six to 11, while ages 6-19 consumed approximately 15 consumption of soda rose 137 percent, fruit percent more.139 juice rose 54 percent, and fruit drinks rose 69 percent.148,149 Bigger portion sizes A major increase in eating out I A study in the Journal of the American Medical Association examined the rise in portion sizes. I Meals and snacks consumed at restaurants From 1977 to 1998, portion sizes for selected accounted for nearly half of all U.S. food popular food items and overall energy intake expenditures in 2008 and U.S. restaurant increased for foods purchased in restaurants industry sales are expected to reach $566 billion or fast food establishments and for foods pre- in 2009.150 In 1975, approximately 25 percent pared in the home. The increase ranged from of food spending was in restaurants.151 49 to 133 calories for all selected popular I In 2004, 63 percent of children ages one to food, such as salty snacks, hamburgers, soft 12 ate out at a restaurant one to three times drinks, French fries, and Mexican food.140 per week.152 27 PORTION DISTORTION 20 YEARS AGO TODAY Coffee with whole milk and sugar Mocha with steamed milk and syrup 8-ounce serving size 16-ounce serving size 45 calories 350 calories Difference: 305 calories Muffin Muffin 1.5 ounce serving size 4 ounce serving size 210 calories 500 calories Difference: 290 calories Pepperoni Pizza Pepperoni Pizza 2 slices 2 slices 500 calories 850 calories Difference: 350 calories Chicken Caesar Salad Chicken Caesar Salad 1 1/2 cup serving size 3 1/2 cup serving size 390 calories 790 calories Difference: 400 Calories Popcorn Popcorn 5-cup serving size 11-cup serving size 270 calories 630 calories Difference: 360 Calories Chicken stir fry Chicken stir fry 2-cup serving size 4 1/2 cup serving size 435 calories 865 calories Difference: 430 Calories Source: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Obesity Initiative, Portion Distortion II Interactive Quiz. Accessed at: http://hp2010.nhlbihin.net/portion/index.htm. Also see Young, L.R. and M. Nestle. “The Contribution of Expanding Portion Sizes to the U.S. Obesity Epidemic.” American Journal of Public Health 92, no. 2 (2002): 246-249. WHY WE OVEREAT David Kessler, the former commissioner of the mentioned ingredients, the pathways of the brain U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), re- are triggered to crave the dopamine release even cently released a book, The End of Overeating: Tak- before consumption of food, but rather at the ing Control of the Insatiable American Appetite, in mere mention or suggestion of the food -- such as which he discusses why people are unable to resist seeing an advertisement or driving by a store. certain foods.153 After much research and investi- After an individual eats the food the brain releases gation, Kessler not only found that foods high in fat, opioids, which bring emotional relief -- and com- salt, and sugar alter the brain’s chemistry, but also pletes the cycle of eating -- regardless of whether that many menu items at a national chain restau- or not the individual was hungry in the first place. rant contain huge amounts of these ingredients, Kessler suggests that in order to stop the cycle of which do not satisfy hunger, but rather stimulate overeating people must rewire their brain’s re- the brain to crave more. sponse to food, and that can only be done by Foods containing fat, sugar, and salt stimulate the shifting the way the country looks at foods high brain to release dopamine -- which is associated in fat, salt, and sugar -- similar to how we’ve with the part of the brain that controls pleasure. changed our view of cigarettes over time, from After enough exposure to foods high in the above- appealing to unappealing. 28 J. ECONOMIC COSTS OF OBESITY HEALTH CARE COSTS I Obesity costs the nation $75 billion in direct I Higher health care costs for obese and seden- costs each year, while the total cost of obesity, tary workers signal poorer overall health including indirect costs, is as high as $139 billion among these individuals. And given poorer per year.154 health, lower worker productivity and in- creased absenteeism are more likely among L Indirect costs often fall most heavily on em- obese and physically inactive employees. ployers in the form of increased absenteeism, disability, presenteeism (when employees Higher workers’ compensation claims come to work in spite of illness, which can I Several studies have shown obese workers have have similar negative repercussions on business higher workers’ compensation claims.163, 164, 165, performance), and workers’ compensation.155 166, 167, 168 I Obesity-related annual costs for treating children I The cost of workers’ compensation claims by more than tripled between 1979 and 1999.156 obese employees were also significantly higher. I Projections for health care costs attributable Obese employees had $51,091 in medical to obesity and overweight are that they will claims costs per 100 full-time employees, more than double every decade. By 2030, ac- compared with only $7,503 in medical claims cording to one study, health care costs attrib- costs for normal weight workers. And obese utable to obesity and overweight could range workers had $59,178 in indemnity claims costs from $860 billion to $956 billion, which would per 100 full-time employees, compared with account for 15.8 to 17.6 percent of total only $5,396 in indemnity claims costs for health care costs, or one in every six dollars normal weight employees.169 spent on health care.157 Occupational health and safety costs I A 2008 study reported that obese employees I The number of severely obese (BMI ≥ 40) pa- cost private employers approximately $45 bil- tients quadrupled between 1986 and 2000 lion a year as a result of medical expenses and from one in 200 to one in 50. The number of excessive absenteeism.158 super-obese (BMI ≥ 50) patients grew by a I Obese people pay 36 percent more for health factor of five, from one in 2,000 to one in care and 77 percent more for medication 400.170 Emergency responders and health care when compared with normal-weight people. providers face unique challenges in transport- These increases are higher than the costs as- ing and treating the heaviest patients. sociated with smoking or drinking.159 I A typical ambulance outfitted with equipment Lower worker productivity and and two emergency medical technicians (EMTs) increased absenteeism that can transport a 400-pound patient costs $70,000. A specially outfitted bariatric I Researchers found that obese workers had ambulance that can transport patients weighing 183.63 lost workdays per 100 full-time em- up to 1,000 pounds costs $110,000.171 ployees, compared with normal-weight work- ers, who had 14.19 lost workdays per 100 I A standard hospital bed can hold 500 pounds full-time employees.160 and costs $1,000. A bariatric hospital bed that can hold up to 1,000 pounds costs $4,000.172 I As a person’s BMI increases, so do the number of sick days, medical claims and health care costs.161 I Nearly one in two emergency medical techni- cians sustained a back injury while performing I A 2004 study concluded that excessive weight EMS duties. Most blamed lifting extremely and physical inactivity negatively impact the obese patients.173 quality of work performed, the quantity of work performed and overall job performance among obese, sedentary individuals.162 29 K. WEIGHT BIAS AND QUALITY OF LIFE HEALTH CARE COSTS A number of studies have reported an association rose to 12 percent in 2004-2006.174 Research has between overweight and obesity and poorer qual- shown weight-based discrimination against people ity of life. According to a Yale University study, with obesity in several areas, including in the hiring weight discrimination was reported by seven per- process, in the workplace, among medical profes- cent of adults in 1995-1996, while that percentage sionals, and in educational institutions. Weight bias in employment Physical and emotional consequences I A 2007 study of more than 2,800 adults found of weight bias that overweight adults were 12 times more I Research shows that obese youth who are likely to report weight-based employment victimized by peers because of their weight discrimination, obese adults were 37 times are more likely to have suicidal thoughts and more likely, and severely obese adults were engage in suicidal behaviors.183 100 times more likely.175 I Overweight young people who are targets of I Compared with job applicants with the same weight-based teasing are more likely to engage qualifications, obese applicants are rated more in unhealthy weight control and binge eating, negatively and are less likely to be hired.176 and they are less likely to participate in physical activity.184 I Overweight people earn one to six percent less than non-overweight people in comparable I In a study of more than 2,400 overweight and positions.177 obese adults, 79 percent reported that they coped with weight bias by eating more.185 Weight bias in health care I Overweight and obese adults are more likely I Self-report studies show that doctors view obese to avoid, cancel, or put off important health patients as lazy, lacking in self-control, non-com- appointments.186,187,188 pliant, unintelligent, weak-willed, and dishonest.178 I Obese people report significantly greater I Sixty-nine percent of overweight people disability due to body pain than patients with report having been stigmatized by doctors.179 other chronic medical conditions, with the Weight bias in education exception of migraine sufferers.189 I Teachers view overweight students as untidy, I One study found that obese children were 5.5 more emotional, less likely to succeed on times more likely to have a poor quality of life homework, and more likely to have family than their healthy counterparts. Severely obese problems. They also have lower expectations children even had a slightly lower quality of life for overweight students.180,181 than children undergoing chemotherapy.190 I Obese students are significantly less likely to be accepted to college despite comparable ac- ademic records.182 30 State Responsibilities and Policies I n this section, TFAH examines trends in state legislative actions and policies aimed at controlling the obesity problem. This overview is intended to help in- 2 SECTION form and begin an evaluation of whether these efforts are having a positive impact. Each state identifies goals and strategies for im- This section provides an overview and update to proving the health of its citizens. States are un- previous years’ analyses and includes: dertaking a wide range of efforts to address the A. State Obesity-Related Legislation; obesity crisis. Since 2003, TFAH has been re- viewing these state policies. For this year’s re- B. State Obesity Plans; and port, TFAH produced a supplement to F as in C. State and Community Success Stories. Fat: How Obesity Policies Are Failing in America en- titled, Obesity-Related Legislative Action in States, which provides greater detail about specific leg- islation. The supplement is available on TFAH’s web site, www.healthyamericans.org. A. STATE OBESITY-RELATED LEGISLATION Since 2003, TFAH has tracked state obesity-re- lation enacted between June 1, 2008 and July 1, lated legislation in the following categories: nu- 2009. This year, we have also expanded the cat- trition, physical education, physical activity, and egories of laws that we track to include farm-to- height and weight measurements in schools; tax school programs, menu labeling, and complete policies; and litigation. This section provides an streets legislation. updated summary of state obesity-related legis- 1) OBESITY-RELATED LEGISLATION FOR HEALTHY SCHOOLS School-based programs have been shown to school day or through extracurricular activities. yield positive results in preventing and reducing A new trend has been the development of farm- obesity.191 Children spend large amounts of to-school programs that bring fresh, local pro- time at school and in before- and after-school duce into schools, both encouraging healthy programs, often consuming as many as two eating and sustainable farming. meals and snacks in these settings. The more than 14,000 school districts in the United States have primary jurisdiction for set- ting local school policies. States can establish policies or pass legislation that affect schools, but the school districts typically have discretion in deciding if they will follow them, a principle known as local control. States often try to create incentives for following policies, such as attach- ing compliance rules to state funding. School-based efforts have focused on improving the quality of food sold in schools, limiting sales of less nutritious foods, improving physical edu- cation and health education, and encouraging increased physical activity either within the 31 OBESITY RELATED STANDARDS IN SCHOOLS -- 2009 Nutritional Nutritional Limited Physical BMI or Non-Invasive Health Farm-to- Standards for Standards for Access to Education Health Screening for Education School School Meals Competitive Competitive Requirements Information Diabetes Requirements Program Foods Foods Collected Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware D.C. Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming # of States 19 27 29 50 + D.C. 20 2 48 + D.C. 19 Please Note: Checkmarks in chart above that are in red type represent new laws passed in 2008 or 2009. 32 SCHOOL MEALS AND SNACKS Nineteen states set nutritional standards for school I Massachusetts declared that $150,000 shall be expended lunches, breakfasts, and snacks that are stricter than exist- for the Childhood Obesity School Nutrition Project within ing USDA requirements: Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Califor- the Department of Education to initiate or maintain school nia, Colorado, Connecticut, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Mississippi, lunch programs focused on diminishing the epidemic of child- Nevada, New Jersey, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Rhode Island, hood obesity. Also, food service providers working with South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, and Vermont. public schools wishing to institute or maintain a school nutri- tion program designed to reduce childhood obesity are en- However, a 2008 analysis by TFAH and the George Washington couraged to submit an application to the department University School of Public Health and Health Services found that indicating the various nutritional and educational steps the only seven states have specific enforceability language: Alabama, school plans to implement with the grant (HB 4900, 2008). Arkansas, Connecticut, Kentucky, Nevada, Oregon, and Texas. Of these seven, only Kentucky and Texas law includes provisions Five years ago only four states had legislation that set for sanctions or penalties for noncompliance.192 nutritional standards for school lunches, breakfasts, and snacks that are stricter than existing USDA require- States that implemented new regulations between June 1, 2008 ments: Arkansas, South Dakota, Tennessee, and Texas. and July 1, 2009, include: SCHOOL MEAL NUTRITION GUIDELINES Federal school meal nutrition standards do not reflect current I Cutting cholesterol levels in meals so that over a week, nutrition science and are unlikely to be updated for about two students consume less than 100 mg of cholesterol at years. Since 1994, the Richard Russell National School Lunch lunch and less than 75 mg at breakfast; and Act has required that school lunches meet the Dietary Guide- I Minimizing the use of trans fats. lines for Americans. In 2004, the Child Nutrition and WIC Reauthorization Act of 2004 (P 108-265) required the U.S. .L. Until USDA releases new guidelines incorporating the Di- Secretary of Agriculture to issue school nutrition guidelines that etary Guidelines into school lunch menu planning, states are would ensure that American schoolchildren consume foods relying on the School Meals Initiative for Healthy Children recommended in the most recent Dietary Guidelines. How- (SMI), which requires schools to offer meals that provide no ever, USDA has issued no proposed regulations in the more than 30 percent of total calories from fat and less than four years since the release of the 2005 Dietary Guide- 10 percent from saturated fat. The SMI also requires school lines.193 Instead, after deliberating internally for those years, lunches to provide adequate levels of certain nutrients. USDA was unable to come to a consensus and contracted with In 2007, USDA published findings from its third School Nutri- the Institute of Medicine (IOM) to convene a panel of experts tion Dietary Assessment Study (SNDA-III).195 SNDA-III is based on child nutrition. In late 2009, the IOM Committee on Nutri- on data collected in the spring semester of the 2004-2005 tion Standards for School Lunch and Breakfast Programs is ex- school year and provides a snapshot of the school lunch and pected to provide USDA with recommendations for updating breakfast programs. At the time, states primarily were using the school meal programs’ nutrition requirements. Once the SMI to guide meal planning, although in the years since, USDA receives the IOM recommendations, agency officials will many state agencies and schools have established nutrition poli- then seek to incorporate them into formal USDA guidance, cies that exceed SMI guidelines as they seek to address con- which is expected to be issued some time in 2010. A final rule cerns about the childhood obesity epidemic. SNDA-III found: will take longer to be issued. This turn of events effectively postpones the update of school meal nutrition standards by five I More than two-thirds of school lunch programs offered years beyond when they were due. Given the fact that school and served lunches that met SMI standards for protein, vi- meal nutrition standards lack standards for sodium, trans fat, tamins, and minerals, while only 20 percent of schools of- and whole grains, and that the fruit and vegetable content is fered and served lunches that met SMI standards for fat. too low, this delay is of considerable public health concern. I Ninety-three percent of elementary schools and 86 percent of secondary schools offered students the choice of a low- In the meantime, USDA is encouraging states to begin im- fat lunch. plementing the 2005 Dietary Guidelines within school meal programs by:194 I More than half of the schools (58 percent) offered students some type of fresh fruit and/or raw vegetable every day. I Increasing the amount and variety of whole-grain products; I Eighty-three percent of schools offered low-fat, one per- I Increasing the availability of fruits and vegetables and en- cent milk. suring that school meals offer both a fruit and a vegetable; I Less than one-third of schools (30 percent) used nutrient- I Offering only skim or one percent low-fat milk in schools; based standards for school meals, a system that ensures I Reducing sodium content in all meals; meals meet age- and grade-appropriate nutrition standards. I Providing fiber at levels that meet the Dietary Guidelines; 33 THE SCHOOL BREAKFAST PROGRAM Research shows that breakfast is an integral the Classroom has almost doubled the num- part of a child’s day and kids who eat break- ber of students eating breakfast at school. fast at school score better on standardized 203 Prior to breakfast in the classroom, tests, have fewer health issues, and behave about 170-180 of the 380 students were better in class.196 Eating a healthy breakfast reached through the breakfast program, but helps kids maintain a healthy weight while now more than 300 students are participat- providing important nutrients. ing daily.204 Teachers, principals, and stu- dents are already providing positive The School Breakfast Program serves over 10 feedback about the new program. A third- million children each day, and more than 1.7 grade teacher at J.C. Nalle said, “When stu- billion meals annually, yet many eligible children dents eat breakfast, they’re more alert. do not participate. For instance, approximately Their minds don’t wander, and they’re more one in three school-aged children in Pennsylva- ‘here.’ We get more work done because nia are eligible, but less than 30 percent of the kids don’t get hungry. I have more of those eligible take advantage of the program.197 my kids coming on time, too. I’ve already Gerald L. Zahorchak, the Education Secretary seen Breakfast in the Classroom cut down in Pennsylvania, hopes to increase participation on absenteeism and tardiness.” 205 by emphasizing the importance and utility of the program, and says, “Children who start the I New York City: In late 2008, Mayor day with a healthy breakfast are more likely to Michael Bloomberg announced an initiative to be alert and ready to learn. Especially during expand the in-classroom breakfast program difficult economic times, we encourage all in the city.206 Before the initiative, only 50 schools to participate in the School Breakfast schools in New York City served breakfast in Program and give their students a healthy start the first period. The initiative, led by the De- to the school day.”198 partment of Education, is expanding to in- clude more than 300 schools. 207 Schools in To encourage more children to participate in the city that have already implemented the the School Breakfast Program, some cities and program report reduced tardiness, improved states are introducing “Breakfast in the Class- attendance, and increased attentiveness into room” programs. the afternoon by the students.208 Breakfast in the Classroom is a universal I Maryland: The Maryland Meals for breakfast program for all children, which is Achievement (MMFA) was a pilot program given as part of their first period of instruc- offering breakfast in the classroom to every tion, rather than before school starts. In the student, regardless of family income.209 A traditional School Breakfast Program, children comprehensive evaluation of the breakfast receiving the free or reduced-price breakfast pilot program was conducted by the Har- often must arrive to school early and eat the vard Medical School and Massachusetts Gen- breakfast in a separate room -- increasing eral Hospital, and the findings support stigma and reducing participation in the pro- serving breakfast to students in the class- gram. Providing breakfast for all students, not room.210 Findings of the evaluation included: just those who qualify based on parental in- come, increases overall participation.199 L Scores on the Maryland School Perform- ance Assessment Program improved sig- I District of Columbia: Although all schools nificantly more in the MMFA schools in the DCPS system now offer universal than control schools from the same breakfast, prior to the 2008-2009 school school systems; year, no school had implemented Breakfast in the Classroom.200 Starting in January L Tardiness decreased by eight percent; 2009, all D.C. public elementary schools L Suspensions decreased by 36 percent; began the program.201 Breakfast is delivered and to the classroom, and the students have the first 15 minutes to eat while they prepare L Ninety-one percent of the staff said the for the day.202 At J.C. Nalle, one of the par- program should continue at their ticipating elementary schools, Breakfast in school.211 34 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA LOCAL WELLNESS PROGRAM In response to startling rates of childhood obesity in the country, I All DCPS schools offer universal “Free for All” breakfast. as part of the 2004 Child Nutrition and WIC Reauthorization Act, I More than three-quarters of DCPS schools are participating all schools that participate in the National School Lunch Program in the afterschool snack program. and/or School Breakfast Program were required to adopt and implement local school wellness policies by the beginning of the I DCPS hired a new food service management company, 2006-2007 school year.212 School districts were required to Chartwells/Thompson, to improve nutrition in school establish nutritional guidelines for all foods available on the school meals. The company has reduced the fat content in milk as campus; assure that federally reimbursable school meals meet well as re-opened kitchens in schools to offer freshly minimum USDA standards; and establish goals for nutrition cooked options. education, physical activity, and other school-based activities. With I Products such as sodas and sports drinks have been elimi- 20.1 percent of children and youth ages 10-17 in the obese nated from vending machines and replaced with healthier category, D.C. has taken the mandate very seriously. items such as baked chips, pretzels, and 100 Calorie Packs of Progress highlights of the D.C. Local Wellness Policy include:213 thin crisp cookies and crackers. I Almost all D.C. Public School (DCPS) schools now have a I All DCPS elementary schools are offering breakfast in the health and physical education teacher and/or physical activity classroom to boost breakfast participation. program in place. I DCPS received federal funds to implement the Fresh Fruit I DCPS is implementing health education and physical educa- and Vegetable Program and in the 2008-2009 school year, tion standards that specify the concepts and skills that stu- approximately six DCPS schools participated in the program. dents should know in each grade. COMPETITIVE FOODS USDA defines competitive foods as any foods and beverages -- I Five years ago only six states had nutritional regardless of their nutritional value -- that are sold at school, standards for competitive foods sold a la carte, in but outside of the USDA school meals program.214 These foods vending machines, in school stores, or in school bake are sold in vending machines, a la carte lines, and school stores. sales: Arkansas, California, Hawaii, Tennessee, Texas, and West Virginia I Twenty-seven states have nutritional standards for competitive foods sold a la carte, in vending machines, I Twenty-nine states limit when and where competitive in school stores, or in school bake sales: Alabama, Ari- foods may be sold beyond federal requirements -- zona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Hawaii, Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Mis- Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Illinois, Indiana, sissippi, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Carolina, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Mississippi, Nebraska, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Car- Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North olina, Tennessee, Texas, Vermont, and West Virginia. Carolina, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Texas, Vermont, and West Virginia. States that implemented new regulations between June 1, 2008 and July 1, 2009, include: States that implemented new regulations between June 1, 2008 and July 1, 2009, include: I Colorado schools will sell to students on school grounds dur- ing the regular and extended school day only beverages that I Vermont has instructed the Department of Education, meet a variety of nutritional standards. Elementary, middle, Department of Health, and Agency of Agriculture to develop and high schools each have different restrictions on sizes and guidelines limiting the sale of competitive foods in schools types of beverages allowed to be purchased during and after (Act 203 Section 16, 2008).215 school. The law goes into effect July 1, 2009 (SB 129, 2008). I Five years ago only 17 states had legislation to limit I Vermont has directed the Commissioner of Education to when and where competitive foods may be sold collaborate with the Commissioner of Health and the Secre- beyond federal requirements: Arkansas, California, tary of Agriculture, Food and Markets to update the current Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Illinois, Vermont nutrition policy guidelines applicable to competitive Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Mississippi, Nebraska, New foods and beverages sold outside the federally reimbursable York, North Carolina, Texas, and West Virginia. school meal programs (HB 887, 2008). 35 CONCERNS ABOUT COMPETITIVE FOODS IN SCHOOLS According to USDA’s School Nutrition Dietary Assessment cations for the overall viability of the program. Declining par- Study III (SNDA-III), the prevalence of competitive foods is ticipation results in decreased cash and commodity support widespread. from USDA for school meals. The reduction in federal funds may also contribute to less interest on the part of schools in I Nationally, one or more sources of competitive foods were maintaining quality school meal programs that meet set nutri- available in 73 percent of elementary schools, 97 percent tional standards, undermining the substantial federal invest- of middle schools, and 100 percent of high schools.216 ment in programs to provide healthy meals to children. I Approximately one-third of elementary schools and close to I Stigmatization of school meal programs: USDA has two-thirds of middle and high schools had foods or bever- expressed concern that the National School Lunch Program ages other than milk for sale through vending machines, a la is often viewed as just for low-income children rather than carte, and/or school stores during the lunch period.217 being available to all children. Often, affluent children spend I Vending machines, which are often stocked with chips, candy, their lunch money on items from vending machines and a la and cookies, were available to students in more than 80 per- carte lines; these foods and beverages tend to be more ex- cent of middle schools and 97 percent of high schools.218 pensive than the school meal. A separate study published in the journal Pediatrics found that I A mixed message: When children are taught in the class- food items sold a la carte were found in 71 percent of ele- room about good nutrition but are surrounded by vending mentary schools, 92 percent of middle schools, and 93 per- machines, snack bars, school stores, and a la carte foods of cent of high schools. Of these schools, almost 80 percent poor nutritional quality, they receive the message that good provided unhealthy food items in their a la carte options.219 nutrition is not important.222 While USDA can regulate the quality and kinds of food sold in Despite the low nutritional value of competitive foods, many school cafeterias during lunch hours, it does not have the au- schools sell these products to gain revenue. A 2005 report thority to regulate foods sold either outside of the cafeteria or by the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) found outside of meal times, such as food sold in school stores, vend- that nine out of every 10 public schools in the United States ing machines, or fundraisers. To conform to current nutrition offered competitive foods to their students, and almost 30 science and address children’s health and nutrition at school, percent of public high schools earned more than $125,000 Congress would need to direct USDA to update the national per year from competitive food sales.223 nutrition standards for foods sold outside of vending machines, Proceeds from competitive food sales are often used to pay for a la carte, school stores, and other foods sold outside of meals, special activities or items not covered by the school’s budget. and apply them to the whole campus for the full school day. As a result, there have been a number of challenges when local T augment local wellness policies, Congress directed CDC to o schools or parent-teacher associations have sought to make undertake a study with the Institute of Medicine (IOM) to review sure only healthy foods are sold in schools. The biggest chal- the science and make recommendations about appropriate lenge results from the fear of decreased revenue from compet- nutritional standards for the availability, sale, content, and itive foods sold a la carte, in vending machines, and in school consumption of foods at school, with attention to competitive stores creating a financial hardship for the school.224 foods. The 2007 report, Nutrition Standards for Foods in Schools: A 2008 review of the literature, however, found that school dis- Leading the Way toward Healthier Youth, concluded that: tricts’ fears about lost revenues due to changes in competitive I federally-reimbursable school nutrition programs should be food offerings were unfounded. In fact, in some schools, there the main source of nutrition at school; was increased student participation in the school lunch program -- both from students paying full price for meals and from stu- I opportunities for competitive foods should be dents receiving free or partially subsidized meals -- which may limited; and have compensated for any revenue losses in snack sales.225 I if competitive foods are available, they should consist of In 2007, the Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI), nutritious fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and nonfat or with support from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, low-fat milk and dairy products, as consistent with the released an analysis of 120 school beverage vending ma- 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGA).220 chine contracts from 16 states to determine the economic In addition to the diet-related health risks, USDA has highlighted impact of such contracts. CSPI also investigated the prob- a number of other issues related to competitive foods:221 lems associated with school fund-raisers involving low-nutri- tion foods and identified alternative fund-raising methods I Impact on school meal programs: The increase in com- that do not compromise student health.226 Among the re- petitive food sales and accompanying decrease in student ports key findings were the following: participation in the National School Lunch Program has impli- 36 I Schools raised modest amounts of money from beverage book fairs, as they can with those that rely on unhealthy contracts, with average revenue of $18 per student per foods and beverages; year. That represents only one-quarter of one percent of I Bake sales are unhealthy and largely unprofitable, as par- the average cost of a student’s education; ents pay twice: once for the ingredients and a second I The majority (67 percent) of the revenue collected from time to purchase the items; and drink sales goes to beverage companies, not schools; I Some 80 percent of products eligible for label-redemp- I Beverage contracts are less profitable to schools than are tion fund-raising programs are of poor nutritional quality. other forms of fund-raising; CSPI recommends that schools should negotiate better con- I Some 85 percent of snacks and 75 percent of beverages tracts by becoming more informed of the finances, beverage in school vending machines are of poor nutritional quality; options, and promotional terms offered by vending con- tracts. In addition, the report urges schools to avoid un- I Cash-strapped schools can raise as much money with healthy fund-raising options, such as sales of junk food and healthier fund-raising options, such as walk-a-thons and fund-raisers at fast-food restaurants. PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND HEALTH EDUCATION IN SCHOOLS Physical Education often limited or not enforced and many of the programs are in- The 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines provide science-based adequate with respect to quality. A 2008 analysis by TFAH and guidance to help Americans ages six and older improve their the George Washington University School of Public Health and health through appropriate physical activity. According to the Health Services found only 13 states had policies with enforce- guidelines, every day children and adolescents should do one ability language: Arizona, Arkansas, California, Delaware, hour or more of physical activity. No period of activity is too Florida, Kentucky, Louisiana, New Mexico, North Carolina, short to count toward the Guidelines. Oklahoma, South Carolina, Virginia, and Washington.229 The 2005 IOM report Preventing Childhood Obesity: Health in the States that implemented new regulations between June 1, 2008 Balance recommended that state and local education authorities and July 1, 2009, include: and schools should ensure that all children and youth participate I Georgia law mandates that each local school system conduct an- in a minimum of 30 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical nual fitness assessments for students in grades one through 12 as activity during the school day.227 However, according to CDC’s part of the current physical education curriculum. The new pol- 2006 School Health Policies and Programs Study (SHPPS), a na- icy goes into effect in the 2011-2012 school-year (HB 229, 2009). tional survey periodically conducted to assess school health poli- I New Mexico added a requirement for students entering cies and programs at the state, district, school, and classroom the ninth grade beginning in the 2009-2010 school year of levels, the number of schools that provide students with the op- one unit of physical education (SB 460, 2008). portunity to engage in 30 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity during the day is minuscule. Health Education The 2006 SHPPS found that:228 I Only two states -- Colorado and Oklahoma -- do not I Only 3.8 percent of elementary schools, 7.9 percent of mid- require schools to provide health education. dle schools, and 2.1 percent of high schools provided daily According to the 2006 SHPPS, health education standards and cur- physical education or its equivalent (150 minutes per week ricula vary greatly from school to school. The survey found that:230 in elementary schools; 225 minutes per week in middle schools and high schools) for the entire school year (36 I The percentage of states that required districts or schools to weeks) for students in all grades in the school; follow national or state health education standards or guide- lines increased from 60.8 percent in 2000 to 74.5 percent in I 67.8 percent of elementary schools provided daily recess for 2006, and the percentage of districts that required this of students in all grades in the school; and schools increased from 68.8 percent to 79.3 percent; I 48.4 percent of schools offered intramural activities or physi- I 13.7 percent of states and 42.6 percent of districts required cal activity clubs to students, and 77.0 percent of middle each school to have someone oversee or coordinate school schools and 91.3 percent of high schools offered students op- health education (e.g., lead health education teacher); and portunities to participate in at least one interscholastic sport. I 67.5 percent of schools used school assemblies and 28.8 I Every state has some form of requirements for physical percent used health fairs to provide information about education for students. However, these requirements are health topics to students. 37 PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT Many school systems have eliminated physical education (P .E.) the review, researchers found that physical activity can be or severely curtailed its offering to focus on core academic added to a school curriculum by taking time away from subjects that students are tested on as part of the No Child academic subjects without hurting academic achievement Left Behind Act. Schools are cutting P classes based on the .E. and that this may actually increase grade point average. assumption that sacrificing P will give students and teachers .E. On the other hand, adding time to academic subjects by more time to prepare for standardized tests and thereby taking away from P does not improve academic .E. boost the schools’ scores on those tests. But in fact, a num- performance and may harm health.239 ber of studies show that students who spend time in P or.E. I A 2008 study by researchers at CDC found that higher other school-based physical activities increased or maintained levels of physical education in school were associated their grades and scores on standardized tests even though with an academic benefit among girls.240 Higher amounts they received less classroom time.231 A 2006 study of sixth of physical education were not positively or negatively as- graders found that students enrolled in P had similar grades .E. sociated with boys’ academic achievement. Similar re- and standardized test scores as students who were not en- sults were reported in a 1996 study of French-speaking rolled in P despite receiving nearly an hour less of daily .E., Canadian schoolchildren.241 Some have suggested that classroom instruction on core academic subjects.232 schoolgirls are less physically active than schoolboys and In fact, the positive effects of physical activity on brain func- thus are more affected by the increase in physical activity. tion are well documented, with a number of studies showing I A 2007 study found that children who performed well on that aerobic activity improves cognition and performance.233 two measures of physical fitness tended to score higher Moderate and vigorous exercise increases the flow of blood on state reading and math exams, regardless of gender or to the brain, which has a stimulating effect.234 Researchers socioeconomic status.242 speculate that this in turn makes schoolchildren more likely to pay attention in class during the school day than children I A 2006 study analyzed data from nearly 12,000 teens who do not get any physical activity.235 And, in fact, there is a across the United States to examine the relationship be- growing body of evidence that suggests physical activity is re- tween physical activity and academic performance. Ado- lated to academic achievement.236 lescents who reported either participating in school activities such as P and team sports, or playing sports .E. Of 14 published studies investigating the link between par- with their parents, were 20 percent more likely than ticipation in physical activity and academic performance, 11 those teens who did not engage in physical activity to found that regular participation in physical activity is associ- earn an “A” in math or English.243 ated with improved academic performance.237 The fact that investigators have concluded that, at the very The following are some highlights from recent research on least, extra time spent in P does not hurt academic .E. physical activity, P and academic performance: .E., achievement is significant. Advocates for children’s health I A 2008 literature review examining the linkages between are hopeful that this may persuade some school districts academic achievement and involvement in P school .E., that reinstating P classes need not come at the expense of .E. physical activity, and school sports found physical activity their pupils’ academic performance. positively impacts academic achievement.238 Based on CHILD-CARE CENTER LICENSING REGULATIONS In 2001, approximately 8.6 million preschool-aged children at- The meal patterns for toddlers and preschool age children must tended some form of child care.244 With the growing number of be consistent with the 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, overweight preschool-aged children, child care is an important area while regulations for infants should be consistent with the Spe- to both regulate and utilize to combat childhood obesity. Child- cial Supplemental Food Program for Women, Infants, and Chil- care policies that promote physical activity and good nutrition can dren. While the majority of states have regulations stating that help shape dietary and physical activity behaviors from a young age. meals and snacks must follow certain requirements, only Michi- gan and West Virginia require that meals and snacks should be All child care facilities are regulated, but regulations vary greatly consistent with the 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans. from state to state, and also for the type of facility—small or Only eight states require vigorous or moderate physical activity, large.245 A recent analysis of nutrition, physical activity, and and only Alaska quantifies the amount of time children should media use at child care facilities in all states and D.C. found that be participating in physical activity daily or weekly. 247 there are significant opportunities for strengthening state licens- ing regulations to curb the growth of childhood obesity.246 38 CHILD CARE CENTER LICENSING REGULATIONS State Meals and Meals and Have policy Have a policy Require vigorous Quantifies Quantify maximum snacks should snacks should prohibiting or on vending or moderate required number amount of time follow meal be consistent limiting foods machines physical activity of minutes of for media each requirements with Dietary of low physical activity day or week Guidelines nutritional by day or week for Americans value Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware D.C. Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming TOTAL 29 2 12 4 8 1 7 Source: Kaphingst K., and M. Story. “Child Care as an Untapped Setting for Obesity Prevention: State Child Care Licensing Regulations Re- lated to Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Media Use for Preschool-Aged Children in the United States.” Preventing Chronic Disease: Public Health Research, Practice, and Policy 6: 1; 2009. 39 CASE STUDY: MAKING DELAWARE EARLY CHILD-CARE ENVIRONMENTS HEALTHIER In Delaware, 29 percent of children between the ages of two and five adopt new best practice standards and policies for the state are already overweight or obese.248 With 53,000 children enrolled in of Delaware. With support from Nemours, the Delaware licensed child-care programs, these programs offer an opportunity to CACFP created new policy regulations to improve food and address nutrition and physical activity. In 2007, Nemours Health & beverage offerings by all licensed child-care providers in the Prevention Services, a non-profit organization based in Newark, state. As of July 1, 2008, the CACFP implemented these new Delaware, began working to change policies and practices to create policies with a six-month grace period before enforcement. a healthy environment in early child-care facilities. The new policies include the following: L Only 100 percent fruit juice may be served, and only one 5-2-1- Almost None serving per day is allowed; I Nemours worked to make regulatory changes through the L Only fat-free or one percent milk may be served to chil- Office of Child Care Licensing to improve healthy eating and dren over two years of age; increase physical activity for children in child care. Regula- tions reflect the 5-2-1-Almost None healthy lifestyle formula. L All pre-fried and fried food items must have less than 35 percent of total calories from fat; and L Eat five or more servings of fruits and vegetables per day; L Sweet baked goods (cookies, cakes, donuts, etc.) may be L Spend no more than two hours in front of a screen (TV, served only once every two weeks as a snack. video games, computer); L Get at least one hour of physical activity per day; and Provider Education L Drink almost no sugary beverages like soda and sports drinks. I Nemours is also working with Delaware state regulatory agen- cies to include healthy eating and physical activity in CACFP Improve Food and Beverage Offerings sponsored trainings, and collaborating with state community I Nemours and the Delaware Child and Adult Care Food Pro- colleges to include healthy eating and physical activity in re- gram (CACFP) worked together over the course of a year to quired classes for early childhood education degree programs. STUDENT HEALTH SCREENINGS I Twenty states have passed requirements for body dom sample of students of various ages from all 100 counties, mass index (BMI) screening of children and and nutrition and physical activity knowledge and behaviors adolescents OR legislation requiring weight-related of the same random sample of students (HB 2431, 2008). assessments other than BMI. I Oklahoma enacted a law to develop a physical fitness assess- L States with BMI screening requirements: Arkansas, ment software program customized for the state’s public California*, Florida, Illinois, Maine, Missouri, New York, schools. The program has the capability to track the five North Carolina, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, components of student health-related physical fitness: aerobic Vermont, and West Virginia. capacity, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, L States with other weight-related screening require- and a weight status assessment that includes measurement of ments: Delaware, Iowa, Louisiana, Massachusetts, height and weight, calculation of BMI for age, and plotting of Rhode Island, South Carolina, and Texas. these measures on standard growth charts (SB 519, 2008). I Vermont passed legislation to convene a work group com- States that implemented new regulations between June 1, 2008 prising the state’s three major insurance carriers, the Office and July 1, 2009, include: of Vermont Health Access, self-insured employers, school I Maine enacted legislation to have a nurse or trained health health personnel, students, and health care providers to re- professional collect BMI data from students, except those view recommended best practices for promoting healthy students whose parent or guardian objects on religious or weight. As part of its review the group will develop a plan philosophical grounds (LD 319, 2009). for promoting measurement and tracking of BMI for chil- I North Carolina enacted a law to study the current status of dren and adolescents (HB 887, 2008). K-12 physical education in North Carolina. The study must I Two states have enacted legislation that requires screening include the minutes in physical education on a weekly basis students for risk of type 2 diabetes: California* and Illinois. throughout the school year for every school, the number of I Five years ago, only four states required BMI screening physical education classes per week throughout the school or other weight-related assessments for children and year for every school, average physical education class size adolescents: Arkansas, Kansas, Louisiana, and Massachusetts. for every school, student BMI data for a statistically valid ran- *Commencing July 1, 2010, statewide distribution of diabetes risk information to school children— California Education Code § 49452.7 will replace individual BMI reporting—California Education Code § 49452.6. 40 THE DEBATE OVER BMI SCREENING A 2006 review of BMI screening policies in the weight and ensure that parents are notified United Kingdom and the United States deter- in a culturally-appropriate manner; mined that while there are potential benefits to I Ensure that there are treatment programs conducting BMI screenings in schools, there is available to help these children; also the potential for emotional or psychological I Foster an inclusive and respectful school climate harm to children identified as overweight or where size discrimination is not tolerated; and obese, who may feel stigmatized or try to take unhealthy measures to lose weight.249 I Efforts to improve the health of students should enhance physical, psychological and The authors of the 2006 review recommend social well-being. that if states choose to implement BMI screen- ings in schools they follow these guidelines: The practice of BMI screenings in schools is relatively new. The American Academy of Pe- I Hire health professionals who are trained and diatrics (AAP) recommends that BMI should qualified to organize and manage BMI screen- be calculated and plotted annually for all youth ing in a sensitive and caring manner, such as as part of normal health supervision within the school nurses; child’s medical home, and the Institute of I Allocate funds for the recruitment and Medicine recommends annual school-based training of non-professional staff to assist screenings.250,251 In 2007, the CDC found with this task; there was insufficient evidence to evaluate the I Train staff how to deal with the emotionally effectiveness of the school-based programs.252 laden topic of children being labeled over- SCHOOL-BASED BMI SCREENINGS: THE ARKANSAS EXPERIENCE In 2003, the Arkansas legislature passed legisla- I Parents are frequently unable to characterize tion to combat childhood obesity in response their child’s weight status accurately, when to dramatic increases in the number of the child is overweight or obese. Among Arkansas children and adolescents who are parents whose children were overweight, 51 overweight or obese. Among other ambitious percent incorrectly perceived the child to be provisions, the law required all school districts of normal weight. Most parents (93 percent) to measure BMI for every public school stu- of children with BMI percentiles in the nor- dent annually and report results to parents. mal to underweight categories correctly characterized their children’s weight status; In order to evaluate the effectiveness of the obesity-prevention programs mandated under I After the first year of BMI reporting, par- state law, the Robert Wood Johnson Founda- ents of children who are overweight or at tion is funding two monitoring and evaluation risk for overweight significantly improved activities. One of these projects, the Arkansas their ability to accurately identify their 1220 Evaluation, examines the state law’s ef- child’s weight risk status; fect on children, families, and schools. From I Screenings increased parents’ awareness of 2004 through 2011 the evaluation surveys par- health problems associated with childhood ents and youth about children’s eating and obesity. Some 81 percent of parents inter- physical activity. It also surveys principals and viewed mentioned diabetes as a health prob- superintendents about the school environment. lem for overweight children in year four, compared with 66 percent in year one; Over the first four years of the evaluation, re- searchers have determined:253 I Student reports of teasing because of their weight did not increase; and I Parents did not view BMI assessments as controversial. Over the four-year evalua- I Student reports of inappropriate dieting be- tion period, 85 percent of principals had haviors (such as fasting and taking diet pills) fewer than five parental contacts on the remained stable over the four-year period issue during the school year; and were similar to behaviors reported by students across the country. 41 IS THERE A BETTER WAY TO COLLECT CHILDREN’S BMI? As of May 31, 2009, 20 states had passed legis- care system. A registry can provide a single lation that mandates school-based BMI or other source for all community immunization data, if weight-related screenings in schools. Such as- a registry includes all children in a given geo- sessments are intended to help schools and graphic area and all providers follow through communities assess the childhood obesity prob- with reporting of immunization information. lem, educate parents and students, and serve as By simply adding two new data fields -- height a means to evaluate obesity prevention and and weight -- these immunization registries can control programs. Currently, however, the ef- be transformed into a powerful new tool for fectiveness of school-based BMI screening pro- state and local health departments as they grams is largely unknown and some states with work to prevent and control childhood obesity. enacted policies have encountered privacy, cost, and feasibility issues with the implementation of In Michigan, Governor Jennifer Granholm and school-based surveillance efforts. the Department of Community Health have agreed to adopt new rules to add BMI surveil- In light of these concerns, there is an emerging lance capacities to the Michigan Care Im- movement afoot to use existing public health provement Registry, an existing electronic surveillance systems, such as childhood immu- registry that contains more than 3.1 million nization information systems to record BMI vaccination records, including virtually every collected in a clinical setting.254 According to child born in the state.256,257,258 2007 research from CDC, 71 percent of U.S. children less than six years of age participated By building BMI collection into the existing in an immunization information system (IIS). registry that is compliant with federal patient Twelve states and three cities reported over privacy laws and enjoys high rates of provider 95 percent of their children older than four participation (95 percent) the Michigan De- months and younger than six years with at partment of Community Health believes it can least two immunizations in the IIS. Fourteen create a BMI surveillance system that will ben- states and the District of Columbia were ap- efit providers, patients and their families, proaching the national health objective with health plans, community groups, and state and participation of 81-94 percent.255 local health departments. IIS, also known as immunization registries, are Researchers at Altarum Institute argue the confidential computerized information sys- next step should be a “nationwide effort to tems that collect vaccination data about chil- encourage other states to follow Michigan’s dren within a geographic area. Children are lead,” and suggest that a portion of the $20 typically entered into a registry at birth (often billion included in the ARRA for health infor- through a linkage with electronic birth mation technology could be used to develop records) or at first contact with the health these systems.259 42 FARM TO SCHOOL PROGRAMS Over the last decade, many states have enacted legislation in States that implemented new regulations between June 1, 2008 support of farm to school programs. Farm to school pro- and July 1, 2009, include: grams are a way to link local farmers and schools, which not I Maryland enacted a law that established a program to pro- only improves nutrition at schools but also increases sales for mote the sale of farm products grown in the state to Maryland farmers. Although several states have taken action on this schools. They are developing programs in partnership with issue, many farm to school programs are implemented at the the State Department of Education to promote the use of local level without state legislation. state agricultural and farm products in school meals and in the Because children continually fall short of reaching the daily classroom (HB 696, 2008). recommended servings of fruits and vegetables, increasing the I Michigan enacted a law that established a farm to school amount of fresh produce available at schools is a logical solu- program to encourage using locally grown produce in tion to improve child nutrition. Studies show that farm to schools (HB 6368, 2008). school programs increase fruit and vegetable consumption I Oregon enacted a law that established a farm to school among students at participating schools.260 A study con- program to increase the use of local produce and to pro- ducted by the University of California at Davis found that farm mote food and garden-based educational activities in school to school programs not only increase the consumption of districts (HB 3601, 2008). fruits and vegetables among participating students, but actually I Tennessee enacted legislation which requires that each local change eating habits, causing students to choose more healthy school board’s plan for compliance with nutritional breakfast options when fresh produce is available at lunch.261 and lunch programs include specific provisions to encourage the Farm to school programs not only promote the use of locally purchase of local agriculture products (SB 3341, 2008). grown foods, but they also use the program as an opportunity to I Virginia plans to establish and maintain a farm to school educate children about local food and farming issues. The educa- website. The website will present information such as the tional components of the farm to school program include activities availability of Virginia farm products and the names of and such as farm visits, cooking demonstrations, and school gardening contact information for farmers, farm organizations, and and composting programs. businesses marketing such products (HB 1331, 2008). Nineteen states currently have established farm to school I Washington established a farm to school program to facili- programs: California, Colorado, Connecticut, Iowa, Kentucky, tate increased procurement of Washington-grown food by Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Montana, New Mex- schools (SB 6483, 2008). ico, New York, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Five years ago only New York had a law that established Vermont, Virginia, and Washington. a farm to school program. FARM TO SCHOOLS: SPOTLIGHT ON BALTIMORE PUBLIC SCHOOLS In an effort to improve the quality of food available at Balti- is not only beneficial for the health of students, but also will more public schools, as well as teach and share gardening boost local and Maryland grown produce sales. According with students, the new food service director for Baltimore to Geraci, he can save significant amounts of money by buy- City Public Schools, Tony Geraci, has opened Great Kids ing locally. Currently the federal school lunch program of- Farm in Catonsville, Maryland.262 fers Washington state apples at $56 a case, but the school can save thousands of dollars by buying locally. Geraci says, The farm has a total of 33 acres and includes three green- “I can buy Maryland apples for $6 a case and feed 50,000 houses, a three-acre garden, a small orchard, pigs, chickens, more kids a year with the same amount of money. What do and goats. Geraci wants to involve the students in every you suppose I’m going to do?” phase of the agricultural process from planting, to harvest- ing, and even to selling the produce. He plans to open Teachers also have welcomed the farm, which has been up and three restaurants called Great Kids Café where students will running since the winter of the 2008-2009 school year. Visiting be paid to manage the restaurants. the farm is an ideal field trip for students -- many of whom would have no other opportunity to visit a farm. Students can Geraci’s changes to the school food system do not end plant seeds in the farm’s classroom and Geraci eventually there. He has also canceled contracts for pre-made lunches hopes to include gardens at all of Baltimore’s public schools. in order to bring in more fresh and local food. This change 43 2) OBESITY-RELATED LEGISLATION FOR HEALTHY COMMUNITIES States also have enacted obesity-related legisla- restrictions on litigation, and planning and tion aimed at the general population. These ac- transportation policies. tions include tax policies, menu labeling, OBESITY RELATED STATE INITIATIVES -- 2009 Has Menu Has Snack Taxes Has Complete Has Limited Labeling Laws the Streets Policy Liability Laws Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware DC Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming # of States 4 30 + D.C. 9 24 Please Note: Checkmarks in chart above that are in red type represent new laws passed in 2008 or 2009. 44 SNACK TAXES New evidence suggests that there is a significant used to fund a healthy eating and nutrition infor- link between food prices and obesity. According mation campaign, while opponents cite several to the March 2009 issue of Milbank Quarterly, in- problems.268 First, as health economist Eric A. creasing the cost of unhealthy foods while simul- Finkelstein notes, these taxes penalize the poor. taneously decreasing the cost of healthy foods, “Because people on lower incomes spend a like fruits and vegetables, has a measurable con- higher proportion of their income on food,” nection with lower body weight.263 Although the Finkelstein says, “this type of tax is largely regres- results showed only a small connection, the con- sive in nature.”269 In addition, the amount of taxes nection was more prominent in populations with levied on junk foods is so small that it is unlikely to low socioeconomic status.264 serve as a deterrent to people. Finally, many states that have passed a version of a snack tax do The combination of taxing energy-dense fast not always use the revenues to combat obesity. foods and sugary foods, while subsidizing healthy Instead, snack tax revenues are used to fund a foods has the potential to have a measurable ef- wide variety of non-health-related state activities. fect on weight -- especially on children and ado- lescents, low socioeconomic populations, as well Despite these problems, a growing number of as individuals most at risk for becoming over- Americans support the idea of taxing unhealthy weight or obese. foods as a means to combat obesity and promote healthy nutrition. According to researchers at One way many states have tried to impact the Yale University’s Rudd Center for Food Policy obesity epidemic is by taxing junk foods in an at- and Obesity, support of a tax on sugared bever- tempt to reduce people’s consumption of these ages ranges from 37 to 72 percent. Soda taxes products. Proponents of these so-called snack tend to garner more support when respondents taxes liken the effort to the campaign to raise are told that the revenue generated by such a tax the tax on tobacco products. Twenty years ago would be used for obesity prevention.270 cigarettes, which have been proved to cause lung and other types of cancer, were taxed at a Researchers at Yale University report that na- low rate, but since the 1980s, cigarette taxes tional junk food taxes could generate more than have tripled.265 The huge tax increase, which $1.8 billion per year from the following items: pushed the cost of cigarettes higher by an aver- I A one-cent per 12-ounce soft drink tax would age of 160 percent, is credited for the recent generate $1.5 billion per year; declines in the prevalence of adult smokers.266 I A one-cent per pound of candy tax would Thirty states and D.C. currently have laws generate $70 million per year; that tax foods of low nutritional value such I The proposed potato chip tax would generate as soda, chips, pretzels, ice cream, gum, and $54 million per year; and candy:267 California, Colorado, Connecticut, I Proposed taxes on other snack foods, fats and D.C., Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, oils would generate $190 million per year.271 Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Minnesota, Mississippi, Nebraska, New Jersey, New Mexico, More recently, a December 2008 CBO report New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, detailing budget options to pay for health reform Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, included a proposal to impose a federal excise Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, Washington, West tax of three cents per 12 ounces of “sugar- Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. sweetened” beverage. If implemented, such a tax would generate an estimated $24 billion in These taxes, also known as “Twinkie Taxes,” and revenues over the 2009-2013 period, and about “fat taxes,” are highly controversial. Proponents $50 billion over the 2009-2018 period.272 of the taxes argue that a tax on junk food could be 45 INCREASED SODA AND SNACK CONSUMPTION From 1977 to 1996 soft drink and salty snack a reduction in liquid calorie consumption is consumption among Americans of all ages sky- linked more closely to weight than solid calorie rocketed.273 For Americans ages two to eight intake.278 Both liquid and solid calories had an and 19-39, soft drink consumption increased impact on weight change, but in the six month by 83 percent and 71 percent respectively, follow-up, only a reduction in liquid calorie in- and the intake of salty snacks rose by 132 per- take had a significant effect on weight loss. cent and 133 percent respectively.274 Among Among the variety of beverages measured, individuals ages 40-59, soft drink consumption only sugar-sweetened beverages (regular soft rose by 111 percent, and salty snack foods in- drinks, fruit drinks, fruit punch, or high-calo- creased by 171 percent.275 rie beverages sweetened with sugar) had a A trend that parallels the growing rates of soft significant association with weight change at drink and salty food consumption can be found in both the six and 18 month follow-up. A re- obesity rates among U.S. adults and children. duction in one serving of sugar-sweetened Many studies show the connection between soft beverages was associated with weight loss of drinks and growing rates of obesity. For example, 1.1 pounds (0.5 kg) at six months and 1.5 one study found that, with each additional serving pounds (0.7 kg) at 18 months. of sugar-sweetened drink for children, obesity It’s not surprising that the rate of soda and risk was 1.6 times higher.276 Another study shows snack consumption has increased as the intake that children who drank at least 12 ounces per of fresh fruits and vegetables has decreased -- day of sweetened drinks gained significantly more the price of soda, sugar, and sweets has stayed weight than children who drank less.277 fairly steady, while the price of fresh fruits and A recent study done by the Johns Hopkins vegetables continues to rise.279 Bloomberg School of Public Health found that ELIMINATING TAXES ON HEALTHY FOODS The state of Mississippi has had the highest goals. First, it would make healthy foods -- rates of adult obesity in the nation for the fifth which studies have shown are 10 times as ex- year in a row. Mississippi is currently one of pensive as unhealthy, high-calorie foods -- more two states that taxes foods purchased for affordable.281 Second, by eliminating the tax home consumption; Alabama is the other.280 only on healthy foods, the state of Mississippi In an effort to lower both obesity rates and would continue to receive revenues from the taxes in the state, the Mississippi Health Advo- purchase of unhealthy foods. The main chal- cacy Program is in favor of eliminating the lenge facing policymakers who may want to seven percent sales tax on healthy foods. consider this approach is how to define “healthy foods.” The Mississippi Health Advocacy Pro- The group argues that eliminating the seven gram recommends convening a panel of nutri- percent sales tax on healthy foods while main- tionists and dieticians to define healthy foods. taining the tax on junk foods would serve two 46 MENU LABELING Menu labeling -- the posting of nutrition information on menus and I Massachusetts law requires restaurant chains with 20 or menu boards -- is a policy that more states and localities are con- more in-state locations to post calorie counts next to each sidering each year. Supporters of nutrition labeling at fast-food and item on their menus or menu boards, including menus at drive- chain restaurants, including the American Medical Association, thru windows. The May 2009 move by the Massachusetts want labeling that is easy to understand and that includes the total Public Health Council takes effect November 1, 2010. calories, fat, saturated fat, trans fat and sodium content of menu I Oregon requires chain restaurants using a menu or menu items.282 According to the Yale Rudd Center for Food Policy and board to include a statement of the total calories for each of Obesity, 80 percent of consumers want this information.283 the menu items listed. The total calorie statement must be in a Only four states -- California, Massachusetts, Maine, and conspicuous place near the other menu or menu board infor- Oregon - currently have laws that require the posting of mation for that menu item (HB 2726, 2009). nutrition information on menus and menu boards in Fourteen other states as well as numerous local governments restaurant chains. At the local level, Seattle, Philadelphia, introduced legislation in 2009 to require restaurants to post New York City, Nashville, and San Francisco have menu- nutrition information alongside their menu items.284,285 The labeling provisions in place. states include: Connecticut, Florida, Hawaii, Illinois, Indiana, States that passed legislation between June 1, 2008 and July 1, Maryland, Missouri, New York, Oklahoma, Rhode Island, 2009, include: Tennessee, Texas, Vermont and West Virginia.286 I California became the first state to enact statewide menu Meanwhile, Utah passed anti-menu labeling legislation. On labeling legislation in September 2008. The law requires March 24, 2009 Gov. Jon Huntsman Jr. signed into law SB213, restaurants with 20 or more locations in the state to disclose forbidding cities and counties in Utah from regulating the dis- calorie and nutrition information in a clear and conspicuous semination of nutritional information or requiring such infor- manner beginning July 1, 2009. After January 1, 2011, they mation to be posted on a menu or menu board.287 must post calorie content information for standard menu The bill is supported by the Utah Restaurant Association, which items directly on menus or menu boards (SB 1420, 2008). claims that changing the menus could cost restaurants $18,000 I Maine enacted legislation requiring that a chain restaurant in one-time costs.288 The bill’s sponsor, Senator Howard must state on a food display tag, menu, or menu board the Stephenson, said menu labeling laws should apply state-wide. total amount of calories per serving of each food and beverage item listed for sale (LD 1259, 2009). THE LEAN ACT On March 10, 2009, Sen. Tom Carper (D-DE) and Sen. Lisa Opponents of mandatory menu labeling argue that many Murkowski (R-AK) introduced the Labeling Education and restaurants already provide nutrition information -- either Nutrition (LEAN) Act of 2009 (S.558). Rep. Jim Matheson online or at the store upon customer request. However, (D-UT) and Rep. Fred Upton (R-MI) introduced companion according to a new study, those means of delivering the nu- legislation in the House (H.R.1398). The LEAN Act would trition information are ineffective. A May 2009 article in the require restaurants and grocery stores that serve prepared American Journal of Public Health reported that less than foods at 20 or more locations to post calorie information di- one percent of people purchasing fast-food review nutri- rectly on a menu board, or one of the approved alternate tion information currently provided by the restaurants in ways, such as an insert or sign next to the menu board. the form of pamphlets, brochures, and on-site computer generated nutrition information.290 Researchers from Yale Supporters of the bill and of menu labeling note that most University watched customers at multiple locations of Mc- people are poor judges of the caloric content of their meals. Donald’s, Burger King, Au Bon Pain, and Starbucks in Man- In fact, studies have shown that consumers consistently under- hattan, New Haven, and other suburban Connecticut estimate the number of calories they consume during a meal. towns. Only six of the 4,311 people surveyed went out of In one study, participants underestimated calories by 22 per- their way to look at the nutrition information provided by cent to 38 percent. The same study found participants were the restaurants in the form of pamphlets, brochures or on- better at estimating calorie counts when consuming smaller site computers.291 meals, and either underestimated calories by 2.9 percent or overestimated calories by three percent.289 47 VOLUNTARY MOVE BY RESTAURANT INDUSTRY Yum! Brands launched a unique initiative, an- boards in company-owned restaurants nation- nouncing it would add calorie counts to menu wide.293 But, the announcement does not boards.292 On October 1, 2008, KFC, Pizza apply to franchisees, who will only be “en- Hut, Taco Bell, Long John Silver’s and A&W couraged” to provide calorie information.294 All-American Food became the first national In 2007 Yum! Brands had 19,905 units in the restaurant chains to begin voluntarily placing United States; only 3,896 of those were com- calorie information on their respective menu pany-owned restaurants.295 LEGISLATION TO LIMIT OBESITY LIABILITY Many states have responded to the obesity Proponents of these bills argue that the central epidemic by passing laws that prevent individuals issue is “common sense and personal from suing restaurants, manufacturers, and responsibility.”296 Passage of the bills indicates a marketers for contributing to unhealthy weight level of support for the view that obesity is an and related health problems. Laws that limit individual health issue. Supporters also endorse liability are fairly controversial and have been a 2004 Bush Administration statement that prompted by fears of obesity lawsuits similar to “food manufacturers and sellers should not be tobacco lawsuits. However, they are among the held liable for injury because of a person’s most visible obesity-related policies to emerge consumption of legal, unadulterated food and a in recent years. person’s weight gain or obesity.”297 Twenty-four states have passed obesity Opponents of limited liability laws support the liability laws: Arizona, Colorado, Florida, position that “it’s impossible for consumers to Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Louisiana, exercise personal responsibility when Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Michigan, Missouri, businesses are concealing important information New Hampshire, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, about their products,” such as the number of South Dakota, Texas, Tennessee, Utah, calories in restaurant food or lack of Washington, Wisconsin and Wyoming. consistency in food labeling.298 48 COMPLETE STREETS INITIATIVES Complete streets are roadways that are designed Nine states have passed complete streets and operated so users of all ages and abilities -- laws: California, Delaware, Florida, Hawaii, including motorists, bicyclists, pedestrians and Illinois, Maryland, Massachusetts, Oregon, and public transit riders -- can safely travel along and Rhode Island. across them. There is a growing trend at both States that implemented new regulations between the state and local levels of government to adopt June 1, 2008 and July 1, 2009, include: complete street policies in order to foster physi- cal activity and promote healthy living and more I California enacted legislation that will require, environmentally friendly transportation use. as of January 1, 2011, that the legislative bodies of every city and county within the state must incor- Physical inactivity, coupled with unhealthy eating porate complete streets planning elements in any habits, is a major driver of the current obesity new transportation plans. The law also mandates epidemic. More than half of the U.S. adult pop- that complete streets planning be used when there ulation does not meet the recommended daily is any substantive revision of existing local trans- physical activity guidelines, while a quarter of portation plans. The California law defines com- U.S. adults report being completely inactive.299 plete streets planning to mean the need to include One major obstacle to physical activity is con- a balanced, multimodal transportation network cern about safety. For example, the number of that meets the needs of all users of streets, roads, children walking to and from school has declined and highways, defined to include motorists, pedes- dramatically over the past 40 years, from 48 trians, bicyclists, children, persons with disabilities, percent of students in 1969 to 16 percent of seniors, movers of commercial goods, and users of students in 2001.300 Parents frequently list traffic public transportation, in a manner that is suitable safety concerns as a top reason for why their to the rural, suburban, or urban context of the children do not walk or bike to school.301 general plan (AB 1358, 2008). Governments and communities that address traffic I Delaware law states that the Delaware safety concerns can promote healthier living. For Department of Transportation will enhance its instance, a 2003 study found that 43 percent of multi-modal initiative by creating a complete people with safe places to walk within 10 minutes streets policy that will promote safe access for of home met recommended activity levels; among all users, including pedestrians, bicyclists, those without safe places to walk just 27 percent motorists and bus riders of all ages (State of met the recommendation.302 An Australian study Delaware Office of the Governor, Executive found that residents are 65 percent more likely to Order number six). walk in a neighborhood with sidewalks.303 I Hawaii enacted legislation that requires the A review by the National Conference of State department of transportation and the county Legislatures identified five state policy options transportation departments to reasonably accom- that are most effective at encouraging biking and modate access and mobility for all users of public walking:304 highways, including pedestrians, bicyclists, transit 1. Incorporating sidewalks and bike lanes into users, motorists, and persons of all abilities. It es- community design. tablishes a temporary task force to review high- way design standards and guidelines and report to 2. Providing funding for biking and walking in the legislature in 2010 and 2011 (SB 718, 2009). highway projects. 3. Establishing safe routes to school. While the bulk of the three-year-old Coalition’s efforts have focused on state and local 4. Fostering traffic-calming measures (e.g., any governments, it also has pushed for federal transportation design that is used to slow traffic). action on the issue. In March 2009 Senator Tom 5. Creating incentives for mixed-use development. Harkin (D-IA) and Representative Doris Matsui The National Complete Streets Coalition is focusing (D-CA) introduced the Complete Streets Act on the first two policy options by working with state, (S.584/H.R.1443). The bills ensure that “all users county and city governments to incorporate features of the transportation system, including that promote regular walking, cycling and transit use pedestrians, bicyclists, and transit users as well into just about every street. According to the as children, older individuals, and individuals Coalition, more than 80 complete streets policies with disabilities, are able to travel safely and have been passed in states, counties, regional conveniently on streets and highways.”305 governments and cities across the nation. 49 THE HARMFUL EFFECTS OF URBAN SPRAWL AND POOR COMMUNITY DESIGN Increasingly, researchers are finding out that it’s not I Government at all levels should enact legisla- just what we eat and how much we exercise that tion to promote active living and ensure that affects Americans’ weight, but how we live our children have the ability to walk, play, and get daily lives. Communities that are designed to en- to school safely; courage walking, biking, and other forms of active I Create and maintain playground, parks, and transport play an important role in people’s health. green spaces, especially in low-income neigh- According to a seminal study published in 2003, borhoods to ensure that children have safe residents of sprawling communities were likely to access for play and active lifestyles; walk less, weigh more, and have higher rates of hy- I Promote legislation and fund programs that pertension than residents of more compact com- encourage active commuting to schools; munities.306 Sprawl describes spread-out areas where homes may be isolated from schools, the I Fund research on the impact of community workplace, and other frequent destinations. As a design on the overall health of children and result, people “who live in these areas may find families; and that driving is the most convenient way to get I Serve as models for communities by situating everything done, and they are less likely to have new government buildings within walking dis- easy opportunities to walk, bicycle, or take transit tance of public transportation and walking as part of their daily routine.”307 trails to encourage active living. Other studies have similarly demonstrated that Research on community design and active living the distance from a person’s home to work and has grown exponentially over the past decade. other daily destinations, community safety, the Active Living Research, a national program of the safety of roads for pedestrians and bicyclists, the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, conducts and availability of facilities for physical activity, and supports research to identify environmental fac- time spent commuting in cars contribute to how tors and policies that influence physical activity for often a person walks, bicycles, or plays.308 children and families to inform effective childhood In May 2009, the American Academy of Pedi- obesity prevention strategies, particularly in low- atrics (AAP) issued a policy statement highlight- income and racial/ethnic communities at highest ing how community design affects children’s risk. Active Living Research maintains a website opportunities for physical activity.309 AAP’s pol- with resources for policy makers, elected officials, icy statement included recommendations for pe- and advocacy organizations. More information diatricians and government. For government, on designing and building healthy communities is AAP recommended that: available at http://activelivingresearch.org/. 50 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES LEGISLATIVE TRACKING In March 2009 the National Conference of State enacted the laws: California, Connecticut, Legislatures (NCSL) released a report detailing Illinois, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New the various efforts state legislatures are taking to Jersey, and Virginia. promote healthier communities and reduce I Health Impact Assessments: A health impact obesity. Promoting Healthy Communities and assessment is defined as, “…a combination of Reducing Childhood Obesity: Legislative Options procedures, methods, and tools by which a pol- tracks legislation from the 2007-2008 legislative icy, program, or project may be judged as to its sessions, but also builds on earlier reports from potential effects on the health of a population, 2005 and 2006. The following is a summary of and the distribution of those effects within the items included in the Healthy Community population.”311 Washington is the only state to Design and Access to Healthy Foods section of enact legislation calling for the use of health im- the report.310 pact assessments, with another three, California, Healthy Community Design and Access to Maryland, and Massachusetts, proposing but not Healthy Food passing legislation. I Bicycling and Walking: Legislators have I Food Deserts / Access to Healthy Foods: used a variety of approaches to increase phys- Many communities -- usually inner-city or ical activity and active transportation by fund- rural ones -- have limited access to affordable, ing infrastructure programs, integrating transit fresh, and nutritious foods. Legislators have with bicycling, developing design and planning introduced innovative ideas such as financial standards to accommodate bikes and pedes- incentives to attract grocery stores and farm- trians, and providing incentives for bicycling ers’ markets. Eleven states proposed legisla- and walking to work. Twelve states -- Califor- tion during 2007 and 2008 to improve access nia, Hawaii, Maryland, Massachusetts, New to healthy foods, and the following seven Hampshire, New Mexico, New York, North states enacted such legislation: California, Carolina, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Louisiana, Michigan, Nevada, New Mexico, and Vermont -- enacted legislation to improve Oklahoma, and Pennsylvania. biking and walking opportunities in 2007 and I Local Food / Direct Marketing: State leg- 2008, and another 12 proposed legislation. islators are aware of the dual benefits of cre- I Transit-Oriented Development: Some ating strong local food systems -- healthier states have introduced legislation intended to citizens and economic growth. Legislatures foster transit-oriented development, a mixed- have introduced a variety of strategies to im- use residential or commercial area designed to prove local foods by encouraging government maximize access to public transport. A transit- agencies to purchase locally, relaxing procure- oriented development neighborhood typically ment laws, giving financial assistance to local has a center with a train station, metro station, farmers, marketing agro-tourism (i.e., vaca- trolley stop, or bus stop, surrounded by tions on farms and ranches) and expanding relatively high-density development with farmers’ markets. The majority of states have progressively lower-density development proposed legislation to strengthen local food spreading outwards from the center. Such systems, and 16 states enacted laws: neighborhoods are designed to encourage Arkansas, California, Connecticut, Florida, walking to and from transit stops and local retail Hawaii, Illinois, Kentucky, Mississippi, Mon- outlets. Ten states proposed legislation to tana, New Mexico, New York, Oklahoma, make development more transit-oriented in Tennessee, Utah, Vermont, and Washington. their state in 2007 or 2008. Eight states 51 TOOLKIT TO PREVENT CHILDHOOD OBESITY The Leadership for Healthy Communities (LHC) and have them taught by certified PE released an action strategies toolkit in May 2009 teachers, support walk-to-school and bike-to- as a guide to help state and local policy makers school programs, and encourage agreements reduce childhood obesity.312 The toolkit con- between schools and community facilities for tains a collection of best practices supported by physical activity. childhood obesity experts and policy-makers, as I Safety and Crime Prevention: Keep com- well as detailed directions on how to implement munities crime free to allow children safe out- successful programs. door physical activity. The tool kit contains a two-part breakdown be- I Quality Nutrition in Schools: Provide tween active living/built environment and healthy healthy as well as appetizing foods in schools, eating. The following are the 10 major areas and support farm-to-school programs, and include policy options LHC has identified to improve standards based health education programs. childhood obesity within the two categories: I Supermarkets and Healthy Food Vendors: I Active Transportation: Improve safety for Improve the availability of healthy food options bicyclists and pedestrians and expand trails in low income neighborhoods by attracting and connections between trails and sidewalks grocery stores and increasing healthy food op- to schools and community areas. tions at convenience stores and bodegas. I Land Use for Active Living: Evaluate and re- I Farm-Fresh Local Foods: Support farmers’ design comprehensive land-use plans to im- markets, community gardens, and locally prove active living and improve community grown foods. design to include and encourage physical activity. I Restaurants: Encourage restaurants to offer I Open Spaces, Parks and Recreation: In- healthy options and reasonably sized portions as crease access to open spaces such as parks well as to label menus with nutrition information. and community gardens. I Food and Beverage Marketing: Regulate I Quality Physical Activity In and Near marketing of unhealthy foods in areas where Schools: Offer physical activity at schools, children are often present, such as schools require physical education classes at schools and community centers. 52 B. STATE OBESITY PLANS A growing number of states have published plans that focus on physical activity and healthy nutri- tion. Currently, 43 states and D.C. have plans in place with specific strategies and goals to lower the prevalence of overweight, obesity and obe- sity-related chronic diseases in each state. Among this group, only D.C. and Virginia have specific childhood obesity plans. The seven states without any obesity plans are: Idaho, In- diana, Kansas, Mississippi, North Dakota, Ten- nessee and Wyoming. Of these states, all but Wyoming are in the process of developing state- wide obesity plans which they expect to make available to the public over the next year or two. Each state has a unique plan, but many contain similar goals and means to achieve those goals. One objective common to almost every state is the urgency to get people involved on all levels; this is known as the Social-Ecological Model. This model aims to affect behavioral change by engaging all levels of influence -- individual, in- terpersonal, organizational, community, and public policy.313 Many of the plans draw on guid- ance from CDC to use policy and environmental changes to target six specific behaviors: I Physical activity. I Fruit and vegetable intake. the process of implementing change, but it is cer- I Breastfeeding. tainly not the only step. In order to turn a plan into action, a state must secure appropriate fund- I Consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages. ing. Unfortunately, a majority of the state plans I Intake of foods that are high in calories but do not address the issue of funding, or only low in nutrients. briefly mention the need to secure funding. Many of the plans refer to the need to secure re- I Television viewing. sources for implementation or suggest that local Some states focus exclusively, or to a large extent, organizations apply for mini-grants, but beyond on childhood obesity. Generally, states have goals that there is no mention of how the plan will be- to improve childhood health through decreas- come a reality. No more than 10 states include ing the amount of time children spend in front details regarding strategies for funding. New of the TV and other electronic entertainment de- Mexico is one of the few that includes a detailed vices, increasing physical activities available to all description of how it intends to fund the plan by children, using public schools to implement linking each objective to a funding source. physical activity and healthy nutrition programs, It is also important to include a system of meas- and encouraging communities to help raise urement to determine what the state has ac- healthier children through local involvement. complished, and to ensure that the state While some states have general goals of de- continues to work toward the plan’s goals. The creasing the percentage of overweight people in majority of states have a surveillance and evalu- their state, others have set very specific goals. ation section within their plans to ensure that Utah, for instance, expects that by 2010 the per- programs are monitored, and the programs cor- centage of children in that state who are over- relate with the goals of the plan. weight by 10 percent or more will decrease from Publishing a nutrition and physical activity plan 12.3 percent to 10.8 percent.314 is just the first step of many that a state must Developing a plan to address the problem of take. Implementation and follow-through are overweight and obesity is an important step in the next, and most important, steps. 53 C. STATE AND COMMUNITY SUCCESS STORIES While many of the jurisdictions highlighted in the section below rely on CDC grants, there are other communities that are moving ahead even without CDC funding. OBESITY-RELATED CDC GRANTS TO STATES — FY 2008 Nutrition, Physical Activity Healthy Communities* Coordinated School Health Grants & Obesity Grant Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware DC Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming # of States 23 47 24 *Reflects FY 2009 Healthy Communities funding. All states were eligible to apply for funding in the range of $25,000 to $40,000. DC, Idaho, Maryland, and Montana did not apply for funding. 54 THE CDC’S HEALTHY COMMUNITIES PROGRAM (FORMERLY STEPS PROGRAM) The Healthy Communities Program, formerly nity Gardening Program (CGP) at Ohio State Steps Program, is administered by a cooperative University Extension (OSUE). The CGP and agreement through CDC. It funds communities OSUE are working to create gardens at to implement local initiatives to reduce the bur- schools and recreation centers in the city, as den of chronic diseases by improving physical ac- well as working with communities and social tivity, nutrition, and smoking habits. Since 2003, service agencies to provide gardening tools and almost 200 communities have been selected to resources. There are now 31 new community participate in CDC’s Healthy Communities Pro- gardens in Cleveland, as well as a new farmers’ gram. During the next five years, at least 260 ad- market in Cleveland’s Central Neighborhood. ditional communities will receive funding and I Colorado -- Although Colorado is the state support to improve health in their communities, with the lowest rates of obesity, each year the as well as show other communities across the rates continue to rise, and according to 2005 nation how to implement community-level YBRSS more than 80 percent of youth in the change. Healthy Communities use local schools, state do not participate in daily PE classes. In work sites, community events, and health care an effort to increase PE in the state, the Steps settings to promote healthy and sustainable Program teamed up with the Colorado De- lifestyles.315 The following are some examples of partment of Education and the Rocky Moun- the impact of Healthy Communities programs: tain Center for Health Promotion and I Broome County, New York -- In the 2006 Education. Steps worked with state agencies BRFSS survey, more than 60 percent of respon- to form 130 coordinated school health teams, dents from Broome County reported being which resulted in community walks; weight- overweight or obese. In an effort to combat management classes; diabetes and asthma obesity in rural areas, the Steps Program imple- courses for students, staff, and parents; recess mented a walking program called BC Walks. before lunch; breakfast in the classroom; and More than 80,000 people have enrolled in the menu changes. One school participating in the program over the last four years, and results program more than doubled the amount of show an almost 10 percent increase in the time students spend in PE. Some elementary number of people who walk 30 minutes or schools have made recess mandatory, and in more five days a week. The Steps Program one county, school lunch menus now offer also helped to expand the Mission Meltaway twice as many fruits and vegetables. Program, which uses a group approach to I Chelan, Douglas, and Okanogan weight management and incorporates diabetes- Counties, Washington -- In order to combat prevention strategies. The Broome County physical inactivity due to long hours sitting in YMCA offers free memberships for eight an office, the Steps Program partnered with weeks to participants of Mission Meltaway. the local Chamber of Commerce to establish I Cleveland, Ohio -- According to the 2005 the Healthiest Business Challenge. Companies BRFSS, 70 percent of adults in Cleveland con- and their employees compete against other sumed fewer than five servings of fruits and companies and are awarded points for vegetables per day, and more than 50 percent smoking cessation programs, policies for did not meet the recommended levels of phys- healthy foods at meetings, using stairs instead ical activity. In an effort to increase the avail- of the elevator, and participating in a work-site ability of fresh produce in Cleveland, the Steps walking program. Program has been working with the Commu- 55 RACIAL AND ETHNIC APPROACHES TO COMMUNITY HEALTH (REACH) SUCCESS STORIES The REACH program is a community based Internet. The coalition built a library partner- program aimed at improving health by eliminat- ship to promote the use of online health infor- ing health disparities. Through the REACH pro- mation. Over a three-year time frame, gram, 40 communities across the country are amputations of lower extremities among funded to improve health disparities in any of African-American men living with diabetes de- the following racial and ethnic minority groups: creased by 36 percent in Charleston and 44 African Americans, American Indians, Alaska Na- percent in Georgetown counties. tives, Asian Americans, Pacific Islanders, or His- I Los Angeles, California -- In south Los An- panics/Latinos. The REACH program addresses geles poor nutrition and lack of physical activ- health disparities at all life stages through com- ity are serious risk factors for heart disease munities, health care settings, schools, work among minorities in the area, and the per- sites and after-school programs. Some of the centage of residents with these problems is positive results from REACH include:316 among the highest in the nation. REACH I Charleston and Georgetown Counties, began documenting the lack of access to South Carolina -- Many African Americans healthy foods in the area, as well as causes in these South Carolina cities are living with and proposed solutions to that problem. In diabetes. The REACH program, along with response to REACH activities, the Los Ange- the Georgetown Diabetes Coalition, imple- les City Council, the Los Angeles County mented strategies to reduce the significant Board of Supervisors, and the state of Califor- health disparities between African Americans nia adopted a series of policies to improve the and whites diagnosed with diabetes. Many quality of food in publicly sponsored pro- people in the local communities expressed grams and provide incentives to attract retail- high interest in using the Internet to find infor- ers of healthy foods to socioeconomically mation about how to manage their diabetes, disadvantaged communities. but they needed help to learn how to use the GEORGIA ELEMENTARY SCHOOL SUCCESS STORY The Browns Mill Elementary School in Lithonia, Since 1998 the school has seen improvements in Georgia, sets the bar high when it comes to the test scores, truancy rates and counselor refer- health of its students. In 1998, the principal, Dr. rals. In the first six months after the nutrition Yvonne Sanders-Butler, completely overhauled overhaul, disciplinary incidents decreased by 23 the school’s nutrition program. For more than percent, counseling referrals went down 30 per- 10 years now, the school has been sugar-free. cent, and standardized test scores for reading improved 15 percent. Not only that, but the day starts with an hour of physical activity, ranging from jumping jacks to Originally, the program was met with strong re- exercising or dancing. The school also provides sistance, but in the 10 years since its inception, the students with a nutritious breakfast. at least 17 other Georgia schools have replicated the Browns Mill Elementary School program.317 56 Federal Responsibilities and Policies M any federal departments and agencies work on issues that impact our abil- ity to eat healthy foods, have safe opportunities to be physically active and 3 SECTION maintain a healthy weight. However, there is no coordinated federal plan to pre- vent and reduce obesity and little collaboration among departments and agencies. This section includes: A. An overview of a number of federal depart- C. An update on CDC grants to states; and ments and programs related to obesity; D. A summary of the investment in obesity- and B. A review of federal obesity-related legislation disease-prevention initiatives in the American that is up for reauthorization in 2009; Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. A. OVERVIEW OF SOME KEY FEDERAL AGENCIES’ INVOLVEMENT IN OBESITY POLICY The summaries below focus on the ways in which restaurants to make nutritional information key federal departments, agencies and programs available to consumers and oversees the ap- have the potential to affect obesity. The sum- provals of weight-loss drugs. maries are not meant to describe the full range of National Institutes of Health (NIH) conducts responsibilities or activities for each department. research and education programs. In 2003, NIH More details on these programs are available in created a Strategic Plan for NIH Obesity Research, the 2004, 2005 and 2008 editions of F as in Fat, focused on research into lifestyle modifications, available online at www.healthyamericans.org. medical approaches, linkages between obesity HHS is involved in more than 300 obesity-re- and health, and health disparities related to obe- lated programs nationwide. Most of the agen- sity. A number of Institutes at NIH manage obe- cies within HHS are involved in obesity-related sity and obesity-related disease-management programs, including: public education campaigns, and the National In- stitute of Environmental Health Sciences is exam- CDC oversees the National Center for Chronic ining how the built environment impacts obesity. Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, in- cluding grant programs for states and communi- Health Resources and Services Administra- ties through its Division of Adolescent and School tion (HRSA) aims to expand health care cover- Health (DASH), Division of Nutrition, Physical age for all Americans and manages a range of Activity, and Obesity (DNPAO), and Division of programs, such as the Maternal and Child Health Adult and Community Health (DACH). CDC’s Block Grant and the Bright Futures Initiative, National Center for Environmental Health also which focus on promoting healthy behaviors. studies the relationship between the built envi- Other HHS offices, including the Surgeon Gen- ronment (land use, urban planning, and trans- eral’s Office, the Office of Women’s Health, portation) and health issues including obesity. the Indian Health Service, and the Adminis- Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Serv- tration on Aging manage obesity-related pub- ices (CMS) is estimated to pay over half of the lic education campaigns. nation’s obesity-related health care costs. President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Food and Drug Administration (FDA) over- Sports encourages Americans to be more ac- sees food labeling requirements and a “Calories tive and manages the President’s Challenge Count” initiative. FDA also “encourages” Awards Program through schools. 57 USDA is responsible for a range of food and nutri- The Federal Highway Administration tion programs that impact obesity, including nutri- (FHA) and Environmental Protection tional advice and guidance; food and obesity Agency (EPA) have undertaken some efforts education campaigns; distribution of food products to work with states to redesign large highway to schools; and oversight and protection of the na- and roadway projects.319 tion’s agricultural and dairy markets. USDA’s Food EPA has a brownfields initiative devoted to and Nutrition Service (FNS) oversees the Supple- cleaning up and redeveloping former commercial mental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), (for- and industrial sites that are abandoned or merly the Food Stamp Program); the Special contaminated with hazardous substances or Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, In- pollutants. Many of these brownfields are fants, and Children Program; the National School redeveloped into public space which can provide Lunch Program and School Breakfast Program; and increased venues for recreation. the Child and Adult Care Food Program. Department of Education administers the Dietary Guidelines for America -- A joint Carol M. White Physical Education Program, HHS and USDA Initiative -- released in 2005 which offers competitive grants for the initiation, and aimed at providing people with advice about expansion, and improvement of physical educa- good dietary habits. tion programs for K-12 students. Federal Trade Commission (FTC) regulates Department of Transportation (DOT) offers advertising of food and diets. It has focused on grants through the Federal Safe Routes to School attempts to limit the marketing of “junk food” to Program. The grants provide funding for infra- children. FTC also monitors possible false ad- structure improvements and educational pro- vertising about diets products and the health grams, such as building safe street crossings and benefits of foods. establishing programs to encourage children to Office of Personnel Management (OPM), in walk and bike to school. an effort to reduce demands on the health care DOD oversees the health of the military. DOD system and associated costs for federal employ- has developed a number of programs to combat ees, has launched initiatives to educate the fed- obesity in the armed services. An estimated 16 eral civilian workforce and retirees about percent of active duty military are currently healthy living and best health care strategies. obese, and 18.9 percent of active duty soldiers HHS, USDA, Department of Defense under the age of 21 are obese.320 Almost one- (DOD), and the Department of the Interior third of 18-year-olds who applied for service in (DOI) created a Memorandum of Understanding to all branches of the military in 2005 were over- Promote Public Health and Recreation to support weight, according to a recent report by the the use of public lands and water resources for Army.321 DOD also partners with the FNS on physical activity and recreation. The memoran- the DOD Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Program to dum particularly cites outdoor recreation as inte- supply fresh fruit and vegetables to schools. gral to a healthy and physically active lifestyle.318 Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) serves The DOI’s National Park Service provides funding over six million veterans. Nearly 70 percent of for the Land and Water Conservation Fund, a these veterans are overweight and approxi- matching federal grant program that assists states mately 30 percent are obese.322 and localities in acquiring and developing public outdoor recreation areas and facilities. 58 OVERWEIGHT AND OBESITY IN THE MILITARY Obesity presents the nation with a wide array while the U.S. Air Force reports that 55 per- of health, economic, and productivity prob- cent of airmen are overweight, and nearly 12 lems, but a lesser-known consequence of the percent are obese.325 epidemic is its effect on national security. In Service members who exceed height-weight March of 2009, the DOD reported that one in guidelines for their branch of the military are five military-age Americans is too fat to qualify often discharged. In fact, every year between for the armed services. Since 2005, the military 3,000 and 5,000 enlisted members are forced has turned away 48,000 overweight recruits, to leave the military for being overweight.326 A which is a greater number than all of the Amer- 1995 Defense Department study estimated the ican troops currently in Afghanistan. Military average cost of recruiting and training a replace- recruiters dismiss volunteers based solely on ment enlisted member to be $40,283, or height and weight before entering the service $56,782 in 2008 inflation-adjusted dollars.327,328 on the presumption that they are not physically This costs the Department of Defense between fit enough to enlist, train, and serve. $170 million and $284 million a year and does Curtis Gilroy, the Pentagon’s accessions chief, not include additional obesity-related medical acknowledged that the obesity problem has expenses. A separate 2007 study estimated presented setbacks for the military, which is in that the U.S. military healthcare system, TRI- the midst of two wars and in constant need of CARE, spends $1.1 billion annually to treat additional soldiers. “It’s clearly a problem for overweight- and obesity-related diseases.329 the United States military. We’re faced with a To combat the growing obesity problem dwindling pool of the youth population in the among U.S. servicemen and women, each of 17-to-24 year old group about which we are the armed services has developed programs very concerned,” he said.323 to promote fitness and health: the Army has The problem is not limited to new recruits. Weigh to Stay; the Navy and Marine Corps According to a U.S. military spokeswoman, 16 have ShipShape; the Air Force has Fit to percent of active duty personnel are obese.324 Fight. These programs use nutrition and fit- Some branches of the military are more af- ness counseling to move military personnel fected than others. For instance, the U.S. and their families toward healthier food Navy reports that 62 percent of its members choices, exercise habits, and lifestyles. are overweight, and 17 percent are obese, B. FEDERAL OBESITY-RELATED LEGISLATION UP FOR REAUTHORIZATION IN 2009 1) The Child Nutrition and Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children Act The Child Nutrition and Special Supplemental These programs are administered by USDA’s Food Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and and Nutrition Service in coordination with state Children (WIC) Act is up for reauthorization by education, health, social service, and agriculture Congress in 2009. The legislation covers virtu- agencies. There are three primary goals of these ally all federal child nutrition and special sup- federal child nutrition programs: 1) improve chil- plemental nutrition programs, including: dren’s nutrition; 2) increase lower-income chil- dren’s access to nutritious meals and snacks; and I School Breakfast Program; 3) help support the agricultural economy.330 I National School Lunch Program; An estimated 39 million children and some two I Summer Food Service Program; million lower-income pregnant or postpartum women are served by the child nutrition pro- I Child and Adult Care Food Program; and grams and WIC.331 Participation in both the I WIC Program. school meal programs and WIC has grown over the past several years. 59 According to a School Nutrition Association sur- improve the nutritional quality of foods sold in vey of 137 school districts, almost 80 percent of schools, promote breastfeeding, and make in- the schools reported more students qualifying fant formula affordable. for free school meals over the prior school year Some issues under consideration include: (2007-2008), and 65 percent showed an increase in students qualifying for reduced-price meals. I Updating the national nutrition standards for The average increase in free and reduced-price school foods sold outside of the reimbursable meal participation was reported at 2.5 percent, school meal programs (i.e. competitive foods which represents an additional 425,000 meals sold in vending machines, a la carte lines, and served in the 2008-2009 school year.332 school stores); Meanwhile, WIC participation grew by nearly 10 I Eliminating the current requirement for percent between fiscal year 2004 and fiscal year schools to sell milk at “various fat levels,” so 2008. Yet, WIC infrastructure funding has failed to they can be allowed to sell only fat-free and keep pace with inflation remaining static at one percent milk as recommended by the roughly $14 million since 1999.333 Economists proj- 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans; ect that the increasing uncertainties in the econ- I Increasing school meal reimbursement rates omy will result in even more Americans becoming so schools can comply with nutritional stan- eligible for WIC. For instance, in the state of Mis- dards, including the 2005 Dietary Guidelines souri alone, more than 13,000 families joined WIC for Americans; in the last year, an increase of nearly 10 percent.334 I Increasing resources to strengthen local A number of advocacy organizations, including school wellness policies and to fund the the National Alliance for Nutrition and Activity USDA Team Nutrition Network program; and (NANA) and the National WIC Association, have suggested a series of recommendations to I Enhancing programs to support breastfeeding. In December 2007, USDA made significant cheese, dried legumes or peanut butter, tuna, changes to the Special Supplemental Nutrition and carrots. The updated WIC list of approved Program for Women, Infants, and Children foods contains all of the previously approved (WIC), adding fruits, vegetables, and whole items, plus fruits (fresh, frozen, dried or grains to the list of grocery items covered. canned), vegetables (fresh, frozen, dried or States have until October 1, 2009, to implement canned), whole wheat bread or other whole the new WIC regulations, but many have moved grains, soy-based beverages and tofu, light tuna, to implement them ahead of the deadline. salmon, sardines, mackerel, canned legumes, and infant foods.335 Under the old regulations, WIC participants were able to purchase iron-fortified infant for- The changes to WIC also include incentives to pro- mulas, milk, cereal (infant and adult), juice, eggs, mote breastfeeding among low-income women. 2) The Elementary and Secondary Education Act The Elementary and Secondary Education Act, Specifically, the FIT Kids Act would: require widely known as the No Child Left Behind Act state and local educational agency report cards (NCLB), has not yet been reauthorized as of to include information on school health and Spring 2009. Parts of the legislation could in- physical education programs; include the pro- fluence how physical education and physical ac- motion of active lifestyles in educational grant tivity are included within the school day. programs; support professional development for teachers and principals to promote healthy Senator Tom Harkin (D-IA) and John Ensign habits and participation in physical activity; and (R-NV) and Representatives Ron Kind (D-WI), fund a study by the National Academy of Sci- Zach Wamp (R-TN) and Jay Inslee (D-WA) in- ences to assess the impact of health education troduced the Fitness Integrated with Teaching and physical activity on student achievement (FIT) Kids Act of 2009 (S.634/H.R.1585), and and to find ways to make and measure improve- its provisions could be considered in the reau- ments to health education and physical educa- thorization of the Elementary and Secondary tion in schools. Education Act. 60 3) Reauthorization of the Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users The Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Trans- side of sports, exercise and recreation. This in- portation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users cludes manual labor on the job, walking and (SAFETEA-LU) will be reauthorized in 2009. The biking to work, and household chores.337 legislation is a vehicle for improving federal pro- I A majority of U.S. adults (20-74 years old) grams that support active transportation (travel by walk less than two to three hours per week bike, foot, or other non-motorized means), safe and accumulate less than 5,000 steps per and complete streets, and public transportation. day.338 U.S. physical activity guidelines call for Researchers partially attribute a decline in adults to walk 10,000 steps daily. Americans’ physical activity levels to a reliance I The automobile has significantly reduced phys- on motor vehicles for commuting to and from ical activity by its frequent use for short trips for work and school. Studies have shown that: shopping, going to the cleaners and other er- I Non-leisure time physical activity has decreased rands, and taking children to school.339 substantially in the past 20 to 30 years due to I The number of children walking to and from increasing mechanization at work and in the school has declined dramatically over the past home.336 “Non-leisure time physical activity” is 40 years, from 48 percent of students in 1969 defined as energy spent in a normal day out- to 16 percent of students in 2001.340 Complete Streets Initiatives and the Safe Routes The federal SRTS program provides funds that to Schools Program are two programs that can be used for either infrastructure or public could be included and expanded in the trans- education. SRTS funds are to be used for the portation reauthorization bill. planning, design, and construction of infrastruc- ture-related projects that will substantially im- Complete Streets Initiatives prove the ability of students to walk and bike to In March 2009, Sen. Tom Harkin (D-IA) and Rep. school. These projects can be located on any Doris Matsui (D-CA) introduced the Safe and public road or any bicycle or pedestrian pathway Complete Streets Act of 2009 (S. 584/ H.R. or trail within approximately two miles of a pri- 1443). The purpose of the bill is to ensure that mary or middle school. SRTS also funds “activi- “all users of the transportation system, including ties to encourage walking and bicycling to pedestrians, bicyclists, and transit users as well as school, including public awareness campaigns children, older individuals, and individuals with and outreach to press and community leaders, disabilities, are able to travel safely and conve- traffic education and enforcement, student train- niently on streets and highways.”341 (See Section ing, and funding for training volunteers and man- 2: State Responsibilities and Policies for a further agers of SRTS programs.”342 discussion of Complete Streets Initiatives.) In August of 2000, Congress funded two SRTS Safe Routes to School Program pilot projects in Marin County, CA, and Boston, MA, through the National Highway Traffic Safety The Safe Routes to School National Partnership, Administration.343 Within a year of the launch of which counts more than 400 groups including the pilot projects, many other grassroots SRTS national non-profit organizations such as Active efforts began throughout the United States. In Living by Design, the American Academy of Pe- August 2005, SAFETEA-LU devoted $612 million diatrics, the American Heart Association, the for The National Safe Routes to School Program Campaign to End Obesity, and National Associa- from 2005 through 2009.344 States have tion of Chronic Disease Directors, has called for awarded nearly 90 percent of available funding an expansion of the Safe Routes to School through FY2008, and more than 4,300 schools in (SRTS) program as part of transportation reau- every state in the nation are implementing feder- thorization. The SRTS program uses a variety of ally funded Safe Routes to School initiatives.345 education, engineering and enforcement strate- gies to make school routes safer for children. 61 SPOTLIGHT ON RECENT REAUTHORIZATION OF THE CHILDREN’S HEALTH INSURANCE PROGRAM (CHIP) ACT In February 2009, President Barack Obama signed the Chil- The interventions will be designed to identify behavioral risk dren’s Health Insurance Program (CHIP) into law to help factors for childhood obesity, screen the most at-risk children, states insure more low-income children who are not eligible and provide ongoing support for this target population. for Medicaid. This program will help provide health services, Examples of these interventions include: including obesity benefits, to millions of children. The law also authorized $25 million for a Childhood Obesity Demonstra- I Establishing programs for after school and weekend tion Project that includes community-based activities related activities to promote healthy eating behaviors and physical to reducing childhood obesity. If a program is successful as a activity; demonstration, it may be further expanded. I Developing healthy lifestyle curricula designed to promote The Secretary of HHS and the Administrator of CMS are au- healthy eating and increase physical activity; thorized to conduct the CHIP demonstration project, with the I Implementing healthy lifestyle classes for parents and goal of developing a comprehensive and systematic model for guardians, with an emphasis on healthy eating behaviors and reducing childhood obesity by awarding grants to communi- physical activity for children; and ties. Eligible grantees include cities, counties, Indian reserva- tions, universities, colleges, health centers, care providers, and I Carrying out educational, counseling, promotional, and other community-based organizations.346 training activities through local health care delivery systems. CLINICAL PREVENTION BENEFITS FOR PATIENTS AT-RISK FOR OBESITY Currently, the Medicaid and CHIP benefits packages offered to I Twenty-six states explicitly cover nutritional assessment clients vary from state to state. and consultation for obese adults under Medicaid, while 20 explicitly do not. I Within Medicaid, reimbursement codes are available to bill for all recommended childhood obesity prevention serv- L Drug therapy to treat obesity is the least frequently ices. Yet, state Medicaid provider manuals often do not covered and discussed treatment category in Medicaid; include specific reference to coverage of obesity-preven- only 10 states cover it while 33 make no mention of it tion and -treatment services. As a result, some providers within their provider manuals. remain uncertain about which services they can provide L Bariatric surgery is covered by 45 state Medicaid plans. and if they can be reimbursed.347 I In states that cover their CHIP population through I Ten states did not address nutritional assessment and coun- benchmark or benchmark-equivalent coverage, there is seling reimbursement for overweight or obese children as no standard benefit for obesity coverage. Instead, any part of Medicaid’s Early and Periodic Screening, Diagnostic, coverage that is available will vary from plan to plan. and Treatment (EPSDT) benefits. In these 10 states, the There is no guarantee that CHIP programs are screening EPSDT provider manual did not specifically mention children for obesity risk and providing appropriate whether Medicaid would pay for these services, and no Cur- lifestyle counseling to drive behavior change.349 rent Procedural Terminology (CPT) codes were listed to bill I In states that run their CHIP program as a Medicaid ex- for these services.348 In these states, it only can be assumed pansion, health care providers are likely to face many of that these services are not likely to be reimbursed. the same challenges that they encounter in providing I Only 11 states provide strong evidence that they will re- obesity-related services through Medicaid; that is, a lack imburse for nutritional and behavioral therapy for over- of clarity about coverage levels and reimbursement for weight or obese children as part of Medicaid’s EPSDT obesity-related services, which can serve as a disincentive benefits, meaning the EPSDT provider manual specifies to delivering these services.350 that the state will pay for nutritional assessment and coun- Source: Except where noted, the information regarding Medicaid and seling that CCPT codes are listed to bill for these services. CHIP plans is from an analysis by the George Washington University School of Public Health and Health Services that was published in the I Only two states’ Medicaid manuals provided guideline 2008 F as in Fat: How Obesity Policies are Failing in America. That references for treatment of obesity in adults. report is available online at http://www.healthyamericans.org 62 C. CDC GRANTS TO STATES Each year, the CDC issues a number of grants to only 22 states and one tribal government due to states to support efforts aimed at preventing limited funds. Twenty states, the District of Co- obesity and obesity-related diseases. Many states lumbia, four tribes and three territories were ap- do not receive these grants due to limited over- proved but unfunded in the latest grant cycle, all funding for these programs. beginning on March 1, 2008. DASH received an additional $3 million in the FY 2009 omnibus, The proposed CDC budget from the adminis- which will support Healthy Passages, a multi-year tration for FY 2010:351 study that follows a group of fifth-grade students I Proposes to sustain the investment in many through age 20 to improve our understanding chronic disease prevention programs, such as of what factors help keep children healthy. the Division of Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Division of Adult and Community Health Obesity and the Healthy Communities program; (DACH): DACH is charged with providing cross- I Proposes a $5 million increase in School cutting chronic disease and health promotion Health to fund 10 additional state education expertise and support to CDC’s National Cen- agencies to help meet the health and safety ter for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health needs of K-12 students; and Promotion. It oversees the Healthy Communi- ties Program. The Healthy Communities Pro- I Proposes a $4 million increase in the REACH gram issues grants to initiate community-based program. interventions that help prevent or halt the Division of Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Obe- spread of obesity. These initiatives focus re- sity (DNPAO): Through its Nutrition and Phys- sources on at-risk populations. CDC works with ical Activity Program to Prevent Obesity and local and state health departments, as well as Other Chronic Diseases, the DNPAO funds pro- non-governmental organizations with roots in grams that use various nutrition and physical ac- local areas to encourage people to be more tivity intervention strategies to address obesity physically active, eat a healthy diet, and avoid to- and other chronic diseases.352 States that are bacco use. Since 2003, more than 240 commu- awarded DNPAO grants are required to create, nities have been selected to participate in CDC’s implement, and monitor a nutrition, physical ac- Healthy Communities Program and over the tivity, and obesity state plan; monitor the preva- next five years, an additional 300 communities lence of overweight, obesity, nutrition quality will receive funding and technical support. and physical activity levels; and monitor the im- DACH also oversees the Racial and Ethnic Ap- pact of the program in changing weight-related proaches to Community Health (REACH) Pro- behaviors, including evaluating progress and ef- gram. The REACH program is a community- fectiveness of their annual work plan. Under based program aimed at improving health by the new five-year grant cycle that began in June eliminating health disparities. Through the 2008, 23 states received funding, five fewer than REACH program communities across the coun- the previous grant cycle. DNPAO received an try are funded to improve the health disparity gap additional $2 million in the FY 2009 omnibus ap- in any of the following racial and ethnic minority propriations bill, which will support two addi- groups: African Americans, American Indians, tional states for a total of 25 states. Alaska Natives, Asian Americans, Pacific Islanders, Division of Adolescent and School Health or Hispanics/Latinos. The REACH program ad- (DASH): As part of its mission to prevent the dresses health disparities at all life stages through most serious health risk behaviors among chil- communities, health care settings, schools, work dren, adolescents and young adults, DASH cur- sites, and after-school programs. Since 1999, rently provides funding for state and territorial more than 40 communities have been selected to education agencies and tribal governments to participate in CDC’s REACH Program. The pres- help school districts and schools implement a ident’s proposed FY 2010 budget includes a $4 Coordinated School Health Program, and, million increased investment in REACH that through this approach, increase effectiveness of would fund 12 to 15 additional communities at policies, programs, and practices to promote $200,000-$250,000 for two-year planning grants. physical activity, nutrition, and tobacco-use pre- Grantees would use the money to conduct com- vention among students.353 School health pro- munity outreach to racial and ethnic minority grams encompass health and physical populations; assemble a community coalition; education, school meals, health services, and conduct a community needs assessment; and de- healthy school environments. The Coordinated velop a community action plan. School Health Program is currently available to 63 APPROPRIATIONS FOR CDC PROGRAMS AND DIVISIONS Division/Program FY 2008 FY 2009 President’s Difference FY 2010 in Funding Proposal Division of Nutrition, Physical $42,191,000 $44,300,000 $44,402,000 +$102,000 Activity, and Obesity (DNPAO) Division of Adolescent and $54,323,000 $57,636,000 $62,780,000 +$5,144,000 School Health Healthy Communities $25,158,000 $22,771,000 $22,823,000 +$52,000 REACH $33,860,000 $35,553,000 $39,644,000 +$4,091,000 D. SUMMARY OF THE OBESITY- AND DISEASE-PREVENTION INITIATIVES IN THE AMERICAN RECOVERY AND REINVESTMENT ACT OF 2009 Congress passed and the President signed into law U.S. Department of Agriculture, ARRA included the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act a number of nutrition-related provisions, such as (ARRA) (P.L. 111-5) in February 2009. The final $500 million for the WIC program; a 13.6 percent bill included $1 billion for a Prevention and Well- increase in the value of benefits provided through ness Fund, including $650 million for evidence- SNAP (formerly the Food Stamp Program), $150 based clinical and community-based prevention million for the Emergency Food Assistance Pro- and wellness strategies. In addition, $500 million gram to purchase food for food banks, and $100 was included for bolstering the health care and million for an equipment-assistance grant pro- public health workforce. The bill includes ac- gram for the National School Lunch Program. countability measures to ensure the funding is Additionally, the Department of Transportation being used to directly improve the health of received $825 million for Transportation En- Americans and directs HHS to come up with an hancements, which are 12 eligible activities re- accountability plan within 90 days for spending lated to surface transportation, including the resources in the most effective way possible. pedestrian and bicycle infrastructure and safety Along with HHS, other departments that work to programs, conversion of abandoned railway cor- promote healthy eating and nutrition also re- ridors to trails, and other priorities. ceived stimulus funds. For example, within the 64 Obesity and the Economy A s the United States struggles through the worst economic contraction since the Great Depression, public health officials and policy makers are bracing for an uptick in obesity rates and obesity-related diseases as families and individuals cut back on healthier, but expensive, food choices and limit their physical activity. 4 SECTION According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, survey, one in four people claim that they are between December 2007 and May 2009, the U.S. making healthier eating less of a priority as the economy shed seven million jobs, and unemploy- recession continues, while more than 50 percent ment climbed from 4.9 percent to 9.4 percent. As of respondents said that price is a more impor- people lose jobs, they also lose their employer-spon- tant factor than nutrition.361 sored health insurance and access to health and One international study found that living in a wellness services that support healthier lifestyles. stressful household may raise a child’s risk of be- Government programs that serve the poor and coming obese.362 This Swedish study found that uninsured cannot fully mitigate the recession’s neg- five- and six-year-old children living with “high ative impact as increased demand strains available stress” families were at almost twice the risk for obe- services. Lack of health insurance translates into sity than those coming in “low stress” families.363 As less access to health care providers and less chance families confront economic challenges posed by of receiving a diagnosis of obesity and treatment the recession, levels of stress will increase for many and counseling to address the problem.354 and make their children more vulnerable. The rising unemployment rate also means many The recession has pushed more Americans to seek more Americans are living in poverty, which help from federal and state programs. The num- could have significant implications for obesity ber of Americans participating in the Supplemental rates. According to the Center on Budget and Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), formerly Policy Priorities (CBPP), if unemployment rises known as the Food Stamp Program, has hit a his- to nine percent by the end of 2009, the number toric high as more as more people seek government of poor Americans will hit 7.5 to 10.3 million, assistance in feeding their families. There has also the number of poor children will equal 3.3 mil- been an uptick in the number of children partici- lion, and the number of children in deep pating in the federal School Breakfast and Lunch poverty will reach two million.355 Programs and states report increasing numbers of Americans living in low-income neighborhoods al- people seeking coverage under Medicaid and the ready face significant problems with access to Children’s Health Insurance Program (CHIP). healthy foods and opportunities for physical activity. Recognizing the health burdens imposed by the I Fast-food restaurants and convenience stores worsening economy, the Obama administration are much more accessible in low-income and Congress used the 2009 American Recovery neighborhoods than chain supermarkets that and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) to address some offer a healthier array of foods including of these issues by: fresh fruits and vegetables;356 I Expanding SNAP and Medicaid coverage; I Crime rates and perceptions of danger are I Subsidizing 65 percent of COBRA payments higher in low-income neighborhoods.357 for newly unemployed; Whether real or perceived, having unsafe neighborhoods means fewer children walking I Expanding unemployment insurance; and to school and playing outside and more time I Directing $650 million towards community- spent in front of the television;358 and based wellness interventions. I Low-income families may have little money However, it is unclear whether these significant left over after paying for housing, utilities, and investments will be enough to ease the health transportation to buy healthy food, which is burdens imposed by the worsening economy. generally more expensive.359 The following section outlines challenges the The economic recession will only aggravate these country faces because of the current recession existing circumstances. A survey in the United and highlights some opportunities that have Kingdom finds that efforts to combat obesity may arisen as a result of the crisis. erode during the recession.360 According to the 65 A. THE HIGH PRICE OF FOOD “ ECONOMIC ADVERSITY INDUCES CONSUMERS TO REPLACE NUTRITIOUS BUT EXPENSIVE PRODUCE WITH LESS COSTLY, HIGH-CALORIE, COMMODITY-BASED PRODUCTS. ” DAVID S. LUDWIG AND HAROLD A. POLLACK, WRITING IN THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION.364 USDA predicts that food prices will rise four to Rising food prices coupled with the recession have five percent during 2009. The current eco- had a serious effect on consumers purchasing nomic climate affects the way consumers think trends. According to a professor of epidemiology about food as well as their purchasing trends.365 and population health at the Albert Einstein Col- A survey consisting primarily of families on the lege of Medicine in New York, to eat the recom- West Coast reports that 54 percent of respon- mended five to nine servings of fruits and dents said grocery shopping has become more vegetables a day would cost an individual three difficult, with almost a quarter of those re- times more than a diet consisting of processed sponding saying they are having a more difficult foods.368 While a 2007 study by researchers at the time feeding or can no longer afford to feed University of Washington found that unhealthy, their families.366 high-calorie foods cost an average of $1.76 per 1,000 calories, while low-calorie, nutritious foods According to Carol Tucker Foreman, director of cost $18.16 per 1,000 calories.369 The study also the Consumer Federation of America, middle- found that unhealthy, high-calorie foods are not and low-income families may be simultaneously only the least expensive, but also most resistant to pushed towards hunger and obesity. “They will inflation.370 As University of Washington epidemi- be hard pressed to buy fresh fruits and vegeta- ologist Adam Drewnowksi, one of the study’s co- bles as prices rise. Instead, they will look to the authors, told the Philadelphia Inquirer, “Fruits, cheapest foods, which aren’t necessarily the vegetables, and fish are becoming luxury goods healthiest.”367 These unhealthy, cheaper options completely out of reach of many people. Con- are often high in calories and fat. sumption of cheap food will only grow.”371 B. FOOD ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS The recession is forcing more Americans to seek care and care for the elderly and disabled) when food assistance. As of February 2009, participa- determining eligibility and benefit amount; and tion in SNAP reached a record 31.8 million.372 I Excluding retirement and education accounts One in five children -- and one in 10 people over- from resources. all -- is now receiving federal food assistance.373 From November 2007 to November 2008 all states Americans also are relying increasingly on local saw an increase in SNAP participation -- with 14 food banks. The 200 food banks served by Feeding states logging increases of 15 percent or more.374 America, an organization that works with corporate donors to secure food and grocery products na- Despite the growing demand for federal food assis- tionally to distribute to local food banks, reported tance, the benefits package has not kept pace with an average increase in demand exceeding 30 per- rising food prices. In response to this gap, the ARRA cent in 2008.377 The food banks cited the rising cost increased SNAP benefits temporarily by 13 percent of food, increasing unemployment, and increasing -- an increase of about $80 a month for many fami- underemployment as the most prominent reasons lies.375 This should allow participants to purchase a for this heightened demand.378 low-cost, but nutritionally adequate diet established by the USDA, known as the “Thrifty Food Plan.”376 More often than not, food banks do not have the resources to provide healthy choices recom- Lawmakers previously had attempted to address mended by dietary guidelines and are only able to the gap between benefits and rising food prices via provide inexpensive, calorie dense options. Food the 2008 farm bill, which included several provi- banks will receive some support from the ARRA, sions that enhanced the federal food safety net, by: which gives them added funds to purchase com- I Increasing the minimum monthly benefit from modities such as canned fruits and vegetables, pasta $10 to $14; products, and soups through the Emergency Food I Increasing the minimum standard deduction; Assistance Program. However, these products tend to be higher in calories and less nutritious than I Considering dependent care costs (such as child 66 fresh produce, lean meat and dairy products. C. SCHOOL MEAL PROGRAMS The recession is also affecting the National School have risen over 23 percent.381 The Miami-Dade Lunch Program and School Breakfast Program. County Public School System paid $4.5 million The School Nutrition Association released a re- more just for milk in the 2007-2008 school year.382 port in December 2008 that surveyed 137 school In many cases, schools have seen no alternative to districts across the United States about student cutting back on more expensive foods such as whole- participation in free and reduced-price meals.379 grain breads and fresh fruits and vegetables.383 Ac- Compared with the 2007-2008 school year, almost cording to Kenneth Hecht, Executive Director of 80 percent of the schools reported more students California Food Policy Advocates, a public policy or- qualifying for free school meals and 65 percent ganization dedicated to improving the health of low- showed an increase in students qualifying for re- income Californians, schools are forced to cut back duced-price meals. The average increase in free on the healthier, more costly items because school and reduced-price meal participation was 2.5 per- boards do not want to lose money. cent, which represents an additional 425,000 meals served in the 2008-2009 school year. Some “This insistence that food service stay in the food service directors suspect that parents do not black means that revenues must be high,” he told know they can apply for the program at any time the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on during the year, and therefore expect more to Education and Labor, which held hearings on apply as information about the free and reduced- the subject in March 2008.384 Without an in- price program continues to spread.380 crease in state or federal funding, he warned that schools may offer less-healthy, less-expensive As schools struggle to feed more students, they also foods that they can sell for a profit, foods such as must grapple with rising food prices. The cost of sugary drinks and potato chips. staples including, milk, grains, produce, and meat D. FAST FOOD AND THE RECESSION “ CONSUMERS ARE BEING PRESSURED BY HIGHER FOOD PRICES AND INCREASED ENERGY AND MEDICAL COSTS. FAST FOOD TENDS TO BE SKEWED TOWARD LOWER-INCOME CONSUMERS, AND INCREASES IN NON-DISCRETIONARY COSTS ALTER THEIR SPENDING HABITS…IN TIMES OF ECONOMIC WEAKNESS AND/OR RISING COSTS, CONSUMERS TEND TO TRADE DOWN TO LOWER PRICE POINTS RATHER THAN PREPARE FOOD AT HOME. — STANDARD & POOR’S385 ” Although higher food prices are bad news for Both McDonald’s and Yum! Brands are now po- many Americans’ wallets, waistlines, and health, sitioning themselves to take advantage of the the nation’s fast-food retailers may not feel much downturn. KFC, a chain that has never had a economic pain. In fact, while the majority of value meal in the United States, introduced a restaurants are struggling to survive, McDonald’s value menu in February 2009 in an effort to at- continues to enjoy growth.386 Company sales in tract more consumers during the recession.390 the United States grew 4.5 percent in the year Both McDonald’s and KFC also plan to combat ending November 2008 -- that month was the 55th the recession by adding hundreds of additional straight month with a sales increase -- and global restaurants worldwide.391 sales were up 7.7 percent over the same period.387 In a time of widespread economic troubles, fast- In 2008, it was one of only two companies on the food outlets are able to increase their sales by of- Dow Jones industrial average that saw share prices fering different dollar-menu items and cheap rise. Wal-Mart was the other company.388 combo meals. And while the cost of a typical Yum! Brands -- the owner of chain restaurants meal like a double-cheeseburger, medium such as Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC), Pizza French fries, and a medium Coca-Cola can vary Hut, and Taco Bell -- also reported worldwide throughout the country, the total calories served sales growth of 7 percent in 2008.389 does not: 1,130 with no dessert. 67 E. HEALTH COVERAGE AND THE RECESSION Employer-sponsored insurance is the leading spending. Given the political difficulties of rais- source of health insurance in the United States, ing taxes in a recession, states typically choose to covering about 158 million non-elderly peo- cut spending on social programs, including Med- ple.392 As unemployment rates grow -- one in 12 icaid. “Since Medicaid is jointly financed by the Americans is currently unemployed -- there is a federal and state governments,” Dr. Rowland corresponding increase in the number of unin- notes, “when states try to save money by trimming sured Americans. According to the Henry J. back their Medicaid programs, the cuts are dou- Kaiser Family Foundation, each one percent in- bly deep: to save a state dollar, the state loses at crease in the unemployment rate leads to:393 least a dollar of federal matching funds.”398 I A three to four percent decrease in state revenues; To help address this paradox the ARRA included I An additional one million new enrollees in $87 billion for a temporary increase in the federal Medicaid and CHIP plans; and share of Medicaid costs. States can qualify for the I An additional 1.1 million newly uninsured enhanced federal financing, if they do not make Americans. changes to restrict eligibility levels or make it more difficult for people to apply for or renew coverage.399 Already, the downturn is making it difficult for states to meet obligations to current Medicaid However, even if people are able to access Med- and CHIP beneficiaries, not to mention the mil- icaid there is no guarantee they will receive the lions more beginning to seek coverage due to kind of care needed to prevent or treat obesity. economic difficulties. According to a 2008 analysis by Trust for Amer- ica’s Health and the George Washington Uni- Maintaining health insurance coverage after getting versity School of Public Health and Health laid off is very important for the health and eco- Services, insurance benefits for obesity-related nomic security of individuals and families. A survey treatments vary greatly across the states:400 during the 2001 recession found that adults are at I Ten states did not address nutritional assess- high health and economic risk when they lose their ment and counseling reimbursement for health insurance, even for a short period.394 More overweight or obese children as part of Med- than half of uninsured adults surveyed went without icaid’s Early and Periodic Screening, Diag- needed medical care -- failing to fill prescriptions, nostic, and Treatment (EPSDT) benefits. In see a doctor when sick, or get recommended tests these 10 states, the EPSDT provider manual or treatments -- and more than a quarter reported did not specifically mention whether Medi- medical bills so high they had to change their way of caid would pay for these services, and no Cur- life, exhaust savings, or go without basic necessities.395 rent Procedural Terminology (CPT) codes The 1986 Consolidated Omnibus Budget Recon- were listed to bill for these services.401 In ciliation Act (COBRA) protects health insurance these states, it only can be assumed that these coverage for workers and their families if they services are not likely to be reimbursed; change or lose jobs by allowing them to extend I Only 11 states provide strong evidence that their employer-sponsored coverage by paying the they will reimburse for nutritional and be- full health insurance premium themselves. But, havioral therapy for overweight or obese chil- with the cost of a health insurance plan for a fam- dren as part of Medicaid’s EPSDT benefits, ily averaging around $12,000 per year, COBRA- meaning the EPSDT provider manual speci- coverage is unaffordable for most people.396 The fies that the state will pay for nutritional as- ARRA sought to address this problem by provid- sessment and counseling that CPT codes are ing $25 billion for temporary COBRA subsidies. listed to bill for these services; Even if the federal government pays 65 percent of I Only two states’ Medicaid manuals provided COBRA premiums, unemployed Americans still guideline references for treatment of obesity will have difficulty paying the remaining 35 per- in adults; and cent, about $350 per month. I Twenty-six states explicitly cover nutritional Many Americans are turning to one of the safety- assessment and consultation for obese adults net programs, such as Medicaid or CHIP. But under Medicaid, while 20 explicitly do not. with revenues declining, many states are strug- L Drug therapy to treat obesity is the least fre- gling to maintain benefits and services to current quently covered and discussed treatment beneficiaries and are unable to take on additional category in Medicaid; only 10 states cover ones.397 Diane Rowland, executive vice president it, while 33 make no mention of it within of the Kaiser Family Foundation, explained the their provider manuals; and dilemma in a recent article. Because states must balance their budgets annually, declines in state L Bariatric surgery is covered by 45 state Med- revenue require them to raise taxes or to cut icaid plans. 68 F. OPPORTUNITIES IN THE MIDST OF THE ECONOMIC CRISIS Although a bad economy generally has deleteri- gardening supplies and seeds can produce an an- ous effects on health, there still can be oppor- nual return of $1,250.404 Community gardens are tunities for positive change. also drawing much more interest, with wait lists doubling, tripling, and even quadrupling.405 Many Investment in Health and Physical Activity gardening advocates petitioned President Obama Congress passed the ARRA on February 14, to plant a garden at the White House, and in 2009. The final bill included $1 billion to sup- March 2009, First Lady Michelle Obama planted port evidence-based clinical and community- the first White House vegetable garden since based prevention and wellness strategies, Eleanor Roosevelt’s World War II victory garden. including $300 million for immunizations, $650 This fall, White House chefs will use the local million to support prevention and wellness ac- harvest to feed the First Family and world lead- tivities targeting obesity, smoking, and other risk ers. But the First Lady said the main motivation factors for chronic diseases, and $50 million for for the garden was to educate children about the reducing health care associated infections. An- health benefits of eating fruit and vegetables and other $500 million was directed toward bolster- then “begin to educate their families and that ing the medical and public health workforce. will, in turn, begin to educate our communities.” The legislation has measures to ensure the funding More Americans Using Public Transportation is being used to directly improve the health of Despite falling gas prices, more Americans took Americans. Congress directed the HHS to come up trips on public transportation in 2008.406 Their with an accountability plan within 90 days for spend- 10.7 billion rides represented a four percent in- ing the resources in the most effective way possible. crease from 2007 -- and the highest ridership The ARRA presents a variety of opportunities for numbers in 52 years. According to the U.S. De- states and communities to use the funding to cre- partment of Transportation (DOT), vehicle ate safe places for physical activity and increase ac- miles traveled on the nation’s roads decreased tive transportation. Billions of dollars have been by almost four percent in 2008. earmarked for sectors such as mass transit, In a report released by the American Public Trans- schools, and communities. More than $45 billion portation Association (APTA), its president, is available for transportation investments, some William W. Millar, said, “Given our current eco- of which could create streets and neighborhoods nomic condition, people are looking for ways to that function in a way that is safe for all users -- save money and taking public transportation offers pedestrians, bicyclists, motorists, and public tran- a substantial savings of more than $8,000 a year.”407 sit riders. Another $10 billion has been provided for public transportation investments, which of- Public transportation is not only good for the en- fers the perfect opportunity for communities to vironment and economy, but for Americans’ enhance their mass transit. More than $30 billion health. Those who take public transportation are can help repair and renovate schools, particularly likely to lead a more active lifestyle because they with improvements to gymnasiums, playgrounds, often walk, bike, or jog to transit stops. According and recreational centers. These are just a few of to a study sponsored by DOT, Americans who use the many ways that states and local governments transit spend a median of 19 minutes daily walk- can put AARA funding to health-conscious use. ing to and from that transit.408 A separate study of commuters in metropolitan Atlanta found that Healthy Lifestyle Changes public transit users are three times more likely The Gardening Boom than others to be fit and meet the daily recom- mended levels of physical activity by taking short With the economy showing no signs of real im- walks to and from public transportation stops and provement, the gardening industry is booming final destinations.409 “The idea of needing to go to in 2009.402 Demand is so great that many com- the gym to get your daily dose of exercise is a mis- panies are running out of seeds. “We’re selling perception,” noted co-author Lawrence Frank of out,” said George Bell, CEO of Burpee Seeds, the the University of British Columbia. “These short largest mail-order seed company in the U.S.403 walks throughout our day are historically how we The savings that individuals and families can reap have gotten our activity. Unfortunately, we’ve en- from vegetable gardens are huge. A study con- gineered this activity out of our daily lives.”410 ducted by Burpee Seeds showed that $50 spent on 69 Summer Vacation and Childhood Obesity 5 SECTION “ THE DATA DON’T PROVIDE MUCH DETAIL ON KIDS’ HOME LIVES, BUT IF YOU HAVE SOME TOM SAWYER IDEA THAT KIDS ARE CLIMBING TREES ALL SUMMER AND ONLY EAT WHEN CALLED TO DINNER, THAT DOESN’T SQUARE WITH THE FACT THAT THEY’RE GAINING WEIGHT SO QUICKLY. THE OTHER STEREOTYPE -- THAT KIDS ARE WATCHING TV, PLAYING VIDEO GAMES, AND EATING CHIPS OUT OF A BAG -- MAY BE CLOSER TO THE TRUTH, AT LEAST FOR KIDS WHO ARE OVERWEIGHT. ” -- PAUL VON HIPPEL, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY STATISTICIAN411 Childhood obesity continues to be a serious meals routinely do not meet nutrition standards problem in the United States. Over the past 30 when scrutinized, and many school districts do years, the prevalence of overweight children has not enforce physical education requirements.415 tripled.412 While a 2008 government report sug- Due to these shortcomings, a widely held as- gested that that the problem may have hit a sumption has developed, where many assume plateau, that plateau is far too high. One in that schools are largely responsible for the child- three American children remains overweight or hood obesity epidemic. Conversely, many also obese.413 Pediatricians are diagnosing related believe that time away from school is healthier diseases in overweight children that were once and more physically rigorous for young chil- thought of primarily as “adult” diseases, such as dren. By extension, many adults idealize chil- type 2 diabetes.414 Studies show that childhood dren’s activities during the summer months, obesity is strongly linked to adult weight prob- assuming that while children are freed from lems and is significantly associated with heart their desks, they run, jump and play for hours, disease later in life. engaging in intense physical activity in the fresh air. New data, however, suggests that many chil- Schools have often been blamed for missing op- dren are more likely to return to school in Sep- portunities to combat America’s childhood obe- tember far heavier than when they left in June. sity problem, or even exacerbating it. School A. THE SUMMER SLIDE School teachers and administrators have long weight gain during the school year.418 Enhanced referred to the drop in students’ reading and summer weight gain is even more pronounced math scores over the summer months as the among black, Hispanic, and overweight chil- “Summer Slide.” New research on children’s dren.419 Although some weight gain is expected health has given the term another dimension, and healthy for growing children, the fact that as evidence has repeatedly revealed a steep de- children add weight at such a rapid pace over cline in physical fitness and nutrition during the the summer is difficult to justify as part of their summer. Experts now point to the summer natural growth.420 Researchers involved in a months as the time that children gain weight the 2007 study found that children were not only ex- fastest, due to a lack of supervision.416,417 periencing accelerated weight gain during the summer, but that their weight gain decreased New evidence suggests that children actually once the students reentered school.421 gain weight two to three times faster during the summer months, when compared to their 71 B. NUTRITION HURDLES OUTSIDE OF SCHOOL A new study shows that the problem of access- National School Lunch Program (NSLP) often ing nutritious food probably has little to do with consumed fewer high-calorie beverages than any specific seasonal changes. Rather, the those who do not participate. Participants did weight gain is related to the quality of food avail- not compensate for the reduced beverage con- able in different settings.422 A 2009 study of sumption by drinking more after school. school-age children shows that the largest pro- Children ate or drank the most calories at loca- portion of low-nutrient, energy-dense foods is tions away from home and school, including consumed at home, not school.423 The study such sources as restaurants, corner stores, after- also showed that children who participate in the school clubs, and ice-cream trucks.424 C. SUMMER FITNESS LOSS Nutrition lapses are not the only problem during over the academic school year and the summer the summer. Flying in the face of the assumption holidays. The authors found that children ac- that children spend the summer months in con- complished significant physical fitness improve- stant motion, research shows children participate ments over the school year, with little to no in less physical activity during the summer than changes during summer vacation.426 The re- they do during the school year. In fact, a small searchers found that childhood physical fitness study of overweight, rural middle school children activity is a major contributing factor for obesity reported that improvements in cardiovascular fit- over time and into adulthood. They credited ness seen during the nine-month school year physical fitness classes at school for the increase were lost during the summer break.425 in fitness during the school year and the absence of these classes for the stagnation in the summer. A separate year-long study of Greek pre-adoles- cent school children compared physical fitness D. IMPLICATIONS FOR PREVENTION EFFORTS Child obesity experts have long focused most of weight gain trend indicate that obesity-preven- their attention on schools, urging policy makers tion efforts concentrating solely on the school to structure reforms around the institutions setting may miss an important aspect of the where children can spend nearly seven hours of problem: children’s behavior patterns during their day.427 The data on children’s summer summer vacation. REAL COMMUNITIES PREVENTING THE SUMMER SLIDE Unequal access to summer learning opportuni- Florida -- Nationally, only one in five young peo- ties and a lack of structured activity may exacer- ple who qualify for free and reduced-price school bate disparities between children’s rates of lunches participates in federal nutrition programs weight gain. Some state and local programs are during the summer months.429 To make that ben- preventing learning loss and weight gain by efit available to low-income children year-round, keeping kids active during the summer months. some schools are keeping cafeteria doors open through the summer. The state of Florida passed Montgomery County, MD -- Summer Adven- a law in 2005 mandating that schools serving a tures in Learning offers free breakfast and lunch high concentration of low-income children de- and three hours of academics every weekday for velop plans to sponsor summer nutrition pro- four weeks, supplemented by afternoon arts and grams. Officials say the program is also helpful physical education. In Southern Maryland, St. for school budgets, because it enables school Mary’s County offers a similar opportunity kitchens to increase revenue and avoid being idle through its Eleven Month School Program.428 through the summer season.430 72 Obesity and the Baby Boom Generation T he confluence of the obesity epidemic and the aging Baby Boomer population is expected to result in significant increases to health care costs in the United 6 SECTION States. Approximately 35 million Americans are over the age of 65. By 2020, that number is expected to reach 54.6 million, more than a 50 percent increase.431 And currently two-thirds of adult Americans are obese or overweight. Obesity-related health care costs become more sig- or $131.9 billion annually) and nearly two- nificant as people age, because many of the dis- thirds of this spending is for enrollees ages 65 eases associated with obesity, such as cardiovascular and older (approximately $85 billion).441 disease, hypertension, and certain cancers do not Many seniors who are enrolled in both manifest until individuals reach their 50s or older. Medicare and Medicaid often have high-cost medical conditions, many of which are associ- Obese elderly are more likely than non-obese ated with obesity, like late-stage diabetes or kid- elderly to have hypertension, osteoarthritis, car- ney disease, and require long-term nursing diovascular disease, diabetes, and lung disease, home or other institutionalized care. and approximately 93 percent of obese elderly Medicare beneficiaries had at least one of these A new analysis commissioned by TFAH and con- five common obesity-related health conditions.432 ducted by researchers in the Department of Health Management and Policy at the University of Michi- Health care for obese seniors (ages 65 and gan School of Public Health found that Medicare older) costs at least an additional $1,486 or some and Medicaid obesity-related costs are likely to grow analyses have found it could be as high as an ad- dramatically as the Baby Boom generation ages, ditional $6,192 per year than for non-obese in- not just because of the larger population size in this dividuals (36.8 to 88 percent higher).433,434,435 cohort, but also because this cohort has higher Medicare and Medicaid pay for approximately rates of obesity than previous generations. half of U.S. obesity- and overweight-related health The analysis demonstrates how obesity rates care costs -- an estimated $46.3 billion annually among adults ages 55 to 64 have significantly in- (2002 dollars).436 creased in the past 10 to 20 years in nearly all 50 I Medicare spending: According to the Congres- states and the District of Columbia. Currently, sional Budget Office (CBO), Medicare spend- Alabama has the highest rate of obese 55- to 64- ing is projected to more than triple from three year-olds at 38.7 percent, and Colorado has the percent of U.S. gross domestic product (GDP) lowest rate at 21.8 percent. in 2007 to 10 percent by 2057.437 Much of the TFAH also examined the difference between the growth in Medicare is associated with patients number of obese 55- to 64-year-olds and the under management for obesity-related condi- number of obese people age 65 and older in tions. According to one study, three obesity-re- each state to determine the potential increase to lated conditions alone (diabetes, hypertension, the number of obese Medicare-eligible individu- and high cholesterol) collectively accounted for als in coming years. The analysis found that pro- 16.1 percent of the increase in Medicare spend- jected increases could range from 5.2 percent (in ing between 1987 and 2002;438 and New York) to 16.3 percent (in Alabama). I Medicaid spending: Approximately nine mil- While numerous studies have shown that obese lion Americans are eligible for both Medicare individuals have significantly higher health care and Medicaid.439 Low-income individuals ages costs, emerging research has shown that many 65 and older make up nearly two-thirds of the obesity-prevention programs can be effective in “dual eligible” population and account for a reducing disease rates and curbing health care disproportionately high percentage of Medi- costs. For instance, a 2008 study by TFAH found caid spending.440 Nearly half of all Medicaid that investing $10 per person per year in proven expenditures are for dual eligibles (46 percent programs aimed at improving physical activity 73 and nutrition in communities could result in This section includes the potential growth in the savings of more than $5 billion for Medicare and number of obese individuals entering Medicare $1.9 billion for Medicaid within five years.442 by state, a state-by-state breakdown of rising obe- This analysis only examined out-patient care, sity rates for Baby Boomers and seniors, and ex- and does not include the significant potential amples of effective community-based obesity- savings for Medicaid if the number of dual eli- and disease-prevention programs. gible elderly individuals in institutional care set- More information on the methodology is avail- tings was reduced. able in Appendix B. A. POTENTIAL CHANGE IN THE NUMBER OF OBESE ADULTS -- 65 AND OLDER Prevalence of Obesity among Adults Age 65+ and Adults Ages 55-64, and the Difference between the Two Age Groups, 2005-2007 State Adults Age 65+ Adults Ages 55-64 Difference Alabama 22.4% 38.7% 16.3% Alaska 29.4% 35.3% 5.9% Arizona 17.6% 29.4% 11.8% Arkansas 20.0% 31.9% 11.9% California 20.0% 28.3% 8.3% Colorado 16.4% 21.8% 5.4% Connecticut 18.4% 23.9% 5.5% Delaware 22.5% 30.8% 8.4% D.C. 22.7% 28.0% 5.3% Florida 19.6% 29.5% 9.9% Georgia 23.1% 31.6% 8.6% Hawaii 13.6% 24.1% 10.5% Idaho 20.8% 31.7% 10.9% Illinois 23.8% 32.1% 8.2% Indiana 25.4% 33.7% 8.3% Iowa 24.2% 33.1% 8.9% Kansas 21.0% 32.9% 11.9% Kentucky 21.5% 33.6% 12.1% Louisiana 27.3% 35.5% 8.2% Maine 19.0% 28.3% 9.4% Maryland 24.3% 31.3% 7.0% Massachusetts 18.3% 25.5% 7.2% Michigan 25.8% 36.0% 10.2% Minnesota 23.6% 32.3% 8.7% Mississippi 23.4% 35.3% 11.9% Missouri 23.7% 33.3% 9.7% Montana 20.4% 27.4% 7.0% Nebraska 23.7% 34.1% 10.4% Nevada 18.9% 29.3% 10.5% New Hampshire 21.5% 28.7% 7.2% New Jersey 22.7% 29.3% 6.6% New Mexico 17.2% 25.1% 7.9% New York 23.6% 28.7% 5.2% North Carolina 22.2% 32.5% 10.3% North Dakota 22.3% 32.4% 10.1% Ohio 22.7% 33.9% 11.2% Oklahoma 22.5% 33.9% 11.5% Oregon 21.0% 29.7% 8.7% Pennsylvania 23.2% 33.3% 10.1% Rhode Island 21.3% 26.8% 5.5% South Carolina 23.4% 31.9% 8.4% South Dakota 22.1% 32.3% 10.2% Tennessee 22.5% 33.7% 11.2% Texas 21.7% 32.6% 10.9% Utah 21.9% 30.7% 8.7% Vermont 20.1% 25.4% 5.3% Virginia 21.2% 30.2% 9.0% Washington 21.6% 29.8% 8.2% West Virginia 24.4% 35.5% 11.1% Wisconsin 24.3% 32.8% 8.5% Wyoming 21.1% 28.6% 7.6% 74 B. A STATE-BY-STATE REVIEW OF RISING OBESITY RATES FOR ADULTS AGES 55-64 AND FOR SENIORS AGE 65 AND OLDER This review of data from the Behavioral Risk Fac- of 3.9 percent in Vermont to a high of 15.3 per- tor Surveillance System (BRFSS) at three dis- cent in Oklahoma. tinct time periods, 1985-1987, 1995-1997, and I In 1985-87, only 34 states participated in 2005-2007, shows that: BRFSS. All 34 of these states with data avail- I Between 1995-1997 and 2005-2007, 49 states ex- able experienced a significant increase in obe- perienced significant increases in obesity among sity rates between 1985-1987 and 2005-2007. their 55- to 64-year-olds. Only Alaska and D.C. Increases in obesity were between 9.9 percent did not experience statistically significant in- in D.C. and 23.2 percent in Alabama. creases. The rate of increase ranged from a low Prevalence of Obesity among Adults Ages 55-64, 1985-1987, 1995-1997, and 2005-2007 1985-1987 1995-1997 2005-2007 Alabama 15.5%† 24.6%‡ 38.7%¶ Alaska NA 27.7% 35.3% Arizona 9.6%† 15.3%‡ 29.4%¶ Arkansas NA 21.1%‡ 31.9% California 11.2%† 18.8%‡ 28.3%¶ Colorado NA 15.4%‡ 21.8% Connecticut 7.7%† 17.7%‡ 23.9%¶ Delaware NA 25.2%‡ 30.8% D.C. 18.1%† 26.4% 28.0%¶ Florida 14.5%† 21.4%‡ 29.5%¶ Georgia 12.7% 17.6%‡ 31.6%¶ Hawaii 11.2% 15.1%‡ 24.1%¶ Idaho 12.2%† 20.0%‡ 31.7%¶ Illinois 14.5%† 21.9%‡ 32.1%¶ Indiana 13.5%† 25.3%‡ 33.7%¶ Iowa NA 25.4%‡ 33.1% Kansas NA 18.9%‡ 32.9% Kentucky 12.3%† 22.6%‡ 33.6%¶ Louisiana NA 23.9%‡ 35.5% Maine 7.1%† 22.4%‡ 28.3%¶ Maryland 15.8% 22.7%‡ 31.3%¶ Massachusetts 12.4%† 19.6%‡ 25.5%¶ Michigan NA 26.7%‡ 36.0% Minnesota 12.8%† 20.0%‡ 32.3%¶ Mississippi NA 27.6%‡ 35.3% Missouri 14.2%† 23.4%‡ 33.3%¶ Montana 9.6%† 17.7%‡ 27.4%¶ Nebraska 14.6% 20.5%‡ 34.1%¶ Nevada NA 18.4%‡ 29.3% New Hampshire 15.1% 20.4%‡ 28.7%¶ New Jersey NA 24.1%‡ 29.3% New Mexico 7.4%† 18.2%‡ 25.1%¶ New York 10.2%† 22.7%‡ 28.7%¶ North Carolina 14.9%† 23.1%‡ 32.5%¶ North Dakota 15.2%† 21.0%‡ 32.4%¶ Ohio 13.9%† 22.7%‡ 33.9%¶ Oklahoma NA 18.7%‡ 33.9% Notes: Oregon NA 22.8%‡ 29.7% † Change between 1985- Pennsylvania NA 25.1%‡ 33.3% 1987 and 1995-1997 was Rhode Island 13.5% 17.7%‡ 26.8%¶ statistically significant at South Carolina 13.3%† 23.1%‡ 31.9%¶ the p≤.0.05 level. South Dakota 12.3% 17.7%‡ 32.3%¶ Tennessee 14.9%† 22.4%‡ 33.7%¶ ‡ Change between 1995- Texas 16.1% 22.1%‡ 32.6%¶ 1997 and 2005-2007 was Utah 10.9%† 19.3%‡ 30.7%¶ statistically significant at Vermont NA 21.5%‡ 25.4% the p≤.0.05 level. Virginia NA 19.4%‡ 30.2% ¶ Change between 1985- Washington 10.6%† 19.3%‡ 29.8%¶ 1987 and 2005-2007 was West Virginia 17.2% 20.6%‡ 35.5%¶ statistically significant at Wisconsin 18.4% 22.7%‡ 32.8%¶ the p≤.0.05 level. Wyoming NA 18.4%‡ 28.6% 75 TFAH also examined the obesity rates for adults I In 1985-87, only 34 states participated in BRFSS. who are 65 and older, and found they also in- Thirty-three of the 34 states saw a significant in- creased significantly in nearly all 50 states and crease in obesity rates between 1985-1987 and D.C. over the past two decades. 2005-2007. The largest increase was in the state of New Hampshire, which experienced a 15.6 I Between 1995-1997 and 2005-2007, 49 states percent increase in obesity rates among adults experienced a significant increase in the num- age 65 and older. The smallest increase was in ber of obese adults age 65 and older. The rate Hawaii, which saw a seven percent rise in obe- of growth was lowest in Alabama at 3.4 per- sity rates over that 20-year period. South Dakota cent and highest in Oklahoma at 12.1 per- was the only state with data for all 20 years that cent. Alaska and D.C. did not have statistically did not experience a significant increase. significant increases. Prevalence of Obesity among Adults Age 65 and older, 1985-1987, 1995-1997, and 2005-2007 1985-1987 1995-1997 2005-2007 Alabama 8.1%† 19.0%‡ 22.4%¶ Alaska NA 27.7% 29.4% Arizona 8.2% 9.5%‡ 17.6%¶ Arkansas NA 16.3%‡ 20.0% California 7.3%† 12.2%‡ 20.0%¶ Colorado NA 11.8%‡ 16.4% Connecticut 8.0% 11.9%‡ 18.4%¶ Delaware NA 15.4%‡ 22.5% D.C. 12.8%† 19.8% 22.7%¶ Florida 6.8%† 14.2%‡ 19.6%¶ Georgia 13.1% 11.9%‡ 23.1%¶ Hawaii 6.6% 7.9%‡ 13.6%¶ Idaho 8.8%† 16.0%‡ 20.8%¶ Illinois 9.3%† 15.7%‡ 23.8%¶ Indiana 12.3%† 18.2%‡ 25.4%¶ Iowa NA 17.8%‡ 24.2% Kansas NA 14.2%‡ 21.0% Kentucky 11.8%† 15.2%‡ 21.5%¶ Louisiana NA 20.0%‡ 27.3% Maine 9.7% 12.7%‡ 19.0%¶ Maryland 12.7% 17.4%‡ 24.3%¶ Massachusetts 9.0%† 13.1%‡ 18.3%¶ Michigan NA 17.0%‡ 25.8% Minnesota 10.5%† 16.9%‡ 23.6%¶ Mississippi NA 18.2%‡ 23.4% Missouri 11.8% 15.3%‡ 23.7%¶ Montana 7.5%† 13.5%‡ 20.4%¶ Nebraska 9.3%† 15.1%‡ 23.7%¶ Nevada NA 13.4%‡ 18.9% New Hampshire 5.9%† 15.7%‡ 21.5%¶ New Jersey NA 15.8%‡ 22.7% New Mexico 3.9%† 10.9%‡ 17.2%¶ New York 10.0%† 14.1%‡ 23.6%¶ North Carolina 11.5%† 16.9%‡ 22.2%¶ North Dakota 12.2%† 16.3%‡ 22.3%¶ Ohio 11.9%† 17.5%‡ 22.7%¶ Notes: Oklahoma NA 10.3%‡ 22.5% †Change between 1985- Oregon NA 14.1%‡ 21.0% 1987 and 1995-1997 was Pennsylvania NA 16.9%‡ 23.2% statistically significant at Rhode Island 10.2% 12.6%‡ 21.3%¶ the p≤.0.05 level. South Carolina 13.0% 14.0%‡ 23.4%¶ South Dakota 17.5% 16.2%‡ 22.1% ‡Change between 1995- Tennessee 7.7%† 16.0%‡ 22.5%¶ 1997 and 2005-2007 was Texas 9.6% 14.8%‡ 21.7%¶ statistically significant at Utah 7.7%† 12.7%‡ 21.9%¶ the p≤.0.05 level. Vermont NA 15.1%‡ 20.1% ¶ Change between 1985- Virginia NA 16.8%‡ 21.2% 1987 and 2005-2007 was Washington 14.3% 13.9%‡ 21.6%¶ statistically significant at West Virginia 10.6%† 15.4%‡ 24.4%¶ the p≤.0.05 level. Wisconsin 15.2% 15.9%‡ 24.3%¶ Wyoming NA 14.1%‡ 21.1% 76 C. THE POTENTIAL FINANCIAL IMPACT OF MORE OBESE SENIORS Millions of Americans enter Medicare with and taxpayers bear the cost of providing for peo- health conditions that could have been lessened ple who could be significantly healthier or have or prevented. In the end, Medicare, Medicaid, their existing conditions better managed. “ WHEN THE ‘BABY BOOMERS’ START TO TURN 65, IT IS EXPECTED THAT GROWTH IN THE SIZE OF THE ELIGIBLE MEDICARE POPULATION, THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY, AND THE INCREASES IN AVERAGE LONGEVITY WILL RESULT IN INCREASES IN MEDICARE AND MEDICAID SPENDING. OUR RESEARCH INDICATES THAT THE INCREASING PREVALENCE OF OBESITY WILL CONTRIBUTE TOWARD ADDITIONAL FINANCIAL BURDENS BEING PLACED ON PUBLIC HEALTH INSURANCE. ” 443 -- ZHOU YANG AND ALLYSON G. HALL WRITING IN HEALTH SERVICES RESEARCH, JUNE 2008 Adults age 65 and older with BMIs in the obese disease and disability are compressed into smaller range are expected to live nearly as long as their portions of a person’s life, lifelong health care man- normal-weight and overweight peers, but will have agement costs are lower and quality of life is im- significantly higher health care costs. A number proved.446 For instance, a person who is obese has of studies have found that preventing disease does a higher risk for needing a knee replacement. If not just lead to deferring costs to the end of life, obesity is prevented, the need and cost for a knee but that keeping people healthy throughout their replacement may be delayed or avoided altogether. lives leads to a less costly life overall. Individuals Some other studies have found being obese may who are healthier throughout their lifetimes often increase a person’s risk of dying compared with avoid developing complications or compounding normal-weight adults, particularly for people who conditions that may develop if they are less are morbidly obese.447 For instance, a 2009 study healthy (e.g. gain too much weight, are physically published in Lancet by CDC researchers found inactive, or practice poor nutrition). that for every five point increase in BMI, the risk A recent study by Lakdawalla, Goldman, and of dying increased by 30 percent with life ex- Shang in Health Affairs concluded that obese and pectancy for morbidly obese individuals (BMI of non-obese individuals have similar life expectan- 40 or higher) reduced by about eight to 10 years, cies, but the health care costs of an obese person which is approximately the same reduction will be significantly higher than a non-obese per- caused by a lifetime of cigarette smoking. They son over the course of a lifetime. Therefore, researchers did not, however, examine the com- higher costs are not offset by reduced longevity. parative lifetime health costs. The study found obese individuals have “fewer dis- The studies that have examined lifetime health ability-free life years and experience higher rates costs have found that individuals who are obese of diabetes, hypertension, and heart disease” and have significantly higher lifetime health costs. that “obesity might cost Medicare more than other diseases, because higher costs are not offset I The Lakdawalla, Goldman, and Shang study by reduced longevity.”444 found that obese 70-year-olds will spend ap- proximately $39,000 more on health care than In addition, a 2007 meta-analysis by Janssen and normal weight individuals, and that “Medicare Mark found that being overweight is not associ- will spend about 34 percent more on an obese ated with a significant increase risk of mortality person than on someone of normal weight.”448 in the elderly, and that being moderately obese is associated with only a modest increase in mortal- I Other studies found that obese men ages 65 and ity risk. This review concluded that the effect of older are estimated to have lifetime medical obesity on mortality was greatest among younger costs that were between $18,000 and $21,000 adults, while obese adults who live to age 65 are higher than normal-weight men (12.5 to 18 per- likely to live as long as non-obese 65 year olds.445 cent higher). Obese women age 65 and older had lifetime medical costs between $32,000 and Scientists refer to this effect as “compression of $48,000 higher than average-weight women morbidity,” which means extending healthy life ex- (16.8 percent and 63 percent).449,450 pectancy more than total life expectancy. Chronic 77 I A 2004 study of medical costs of the severely dents were less likely than non-diabetic residents obese found that medical costs for severely to pay with private insurance and out-of-pocket re- obese men age 65 and older were $76,516 sources, and more likely to use Medicare and more (76 percent higher) than for non-over- Medicaid. Approximately 44 percent of diabetes weight men. Meanwhile, lifetime health care nursing home patients paid with Medicare, and costs for severely obese women age 65 and 35.7 percent paid with Medicaid.455 older were $97,886 more (127 percent According to the Kaiser Commission on Medi- higher) than for non-overweight women.451 caid and the Uninsured, “Medicaid enrollees I Obese Medicare beneficiaries ( 30.0 ≤ BMI ≤ with diabetes are a high cost population with sig- 34.9) spent $2,374 on prescription drugs in nificant health complications and high levels of 2003 compared with normal-weight benefici- health care use.”456 Approximately 1.9 million aries (18.5 ≤ BMI ≤ 24.9), who spent $1,764. Medicaid enrollees had diabetes in 2003, which Morbidly obese beneficiaries (BMI ≥ 40) represented about six percent of the Medicaid spent nearly $3,000.452 population (and about 15 percent of the total U.S. population with diabetes). However, Med- Medicaid bears a significant portion of the cost of icaid enrollees with diabetes accounted for 16 treating seniors who are obese, since this includes percent of total Medicaid spending. Twenty-two many elderly who have expensive health condi- percent of the six percent of the Medicaid pop- tions and are often in institutionalized care set- ulation with diabetes were elderly (869,073 in- tings, like nursing homes. A 2003 study found that dividuals), and they accounted for more than Medicaid enrolled the highest number of obese $14 billion in Medicaid health care costs in individuals compared to other insurance cate- 2003. The average health care cost for Medicaid gories -- nearly 10 percent more than Medicare enrollees with diabetes was $16,967 per person. and private insurers. The study found annual medical spending associated with obesity is nearly L Elderly diabetics spent almost three times 40 percent (averaging $843) higher for individuals more than elderly non-diabetics on in-pa- enrolled in Medicaid than other insurers.453 tient services ($1,620 compared with $566) through Medicaid. “These differences are Diabetes alone is one of the most costly conditions quite striking considering most elderly Med- to Medicaid. For adults ages 45-74, diabetes ac- icaid enrollees are dual eligibles, and will counted for 8.6 percent of hospitalizations, 12.3 therefore have much of their acute care percent of nursing home admissions, and 10.3 services covered by Medicare as well.”457 percent of deaths in 1988-1994.454 One in four nursing home residents age 65 and older had di- L Elderly diabetics spent $3,136 on prescrip- abetes in the United States in 2004, representing tion drugs through Medicaid, compared 324,000 individuals. At admission, diabetic resi- with non-diabetic elderly, who spent $1,969. 78 D. STATE-BY-STATE MEDICARE AND MEDICAID OBESITY HEALTH CARE COSTS A 2004 study by Finkelstein, Fiebelkorn, and Survey (MEPS) data from 1998 to 2000.458 An Wang examined state-level estimates of annual updated and revised version of this study is ex- medical expenditures attributable to obesity pected to be released in summer 2009. based on BRFSS and Medical Expenditure Panel Estimated Obesity Medical Expenditures by State State Total Population Medicare Population Medicaid Population (Millions $) (Millions $) (Millions $) Alabama $1320 $341 $269 Alaska $195 $17 $29 Arizona $752 $154 $242* Arkansas $663 $171 $180 California $7675 $1738 $1713 Colorado $874 $139 $158 Connecticut $856 $246 $419 Delaware $207 $57 $66 DC $372 $64 $114 Florida $3987 $1290 $900 Georgia $2133 $405 $385 Hawaii $290 $30 $90 Idaho $227 $40 $69 Illinois $3439 $805 $1045 Indiana $1637 $379 $522 Iowa $783 $165 $198 Kansas $657 $138 $143* Kentucky $1163 $270 $340 Louisiana $1373 $402 $525 Maine $357 $66 $137 Maryland $1533 $368 $391 Massachusetts $1822 $446 $618 Michigan $2931 $748 $882 Minnesota $1307 $227 $325 Mississippi $757 $223 $221 Missouri $1636 $413 $454 Montana $175 $41 $48 Nebraska $454 $94 $114 Nevada $337 $74 $56* New Hampshire $302 $46 $79* New Jersey $2342 $591 $630 New Mexico $324 $51 $84 New York $6080 $1391 $3539 North Carolina $2138 $448 $662 North Dakota $209 $45 $55 Ohio $3304 $839 $914 Oklahoma $854 $227 $163 Oregon $781 $145 $180 Pennsylvania $4138 $1187 $1219 Rhode Island $305 $83 $89 South Carolina $1060 $242 $285 South Dakota $195 $36 $45 Tennessee $1840 $433 $488 Texas $5340 $1209 $1177 Utah $393 $62 $71 Vermont $141 $29 $40 Virginia $1641 $320 $374 Washington $1330 $236 $365 West Virginia $588 $140 $187 Wisconsin $1486 $306 $320 Wyoming $87 $15 $23 TOTAL $75,051 $17,701 $21,329 Notes: *Estimates based on fewer than 20 observations. Table adapted from Finkelstein, E.A., I.C. Fiebelkorn, and G. Wang. “State-Level Estimates of Annual Medical Expenditures Attributable to Obesity.” Obesity Research 12, no. 1 (January 2004): 18-24. 79 E. DISEASE-PREVENTION PROGRAMS TO CONTROL OBESITY-RELATED CONDITIONS AND COSTS “ WITH CURRENT TRENDS OF INCREASING OVERWEIGHT AND OBESITY AFFLICTING ALL AGE GROUPS, URGENT PREVENTIVE MEASURES ARE REQUIRED NOT ONLY TO LESSEN THE BURDEN OF DISEASE AND DISABILITY ASSOCIATED WITH EXCESS WEIGHT BUT ALSO TO CONTAIN FUTURE HEALTH CARE COSTS INCURRED BY THE AGING POPULATION. ” 459 -- MARTHA L. DAVIGLUS, KIANG LIU, LIJING L. YAN, ET AL. WRITING IN THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION, DECEMBER 2004. One way for policymakers to address the fiscal A Medicare demonstration project would be one health of Medicare and Medicaid is to invest in way to test and evaluate the effectiveness of these community-based disease-prevention programs programs in communities on a wide scale. targeted to the pre-Medicare population, so they The following are examples of evidence-based will be healthier and incur fewer costs when they programs that have been shown to prevent or slow do enter Medicare. A number of community- the progression of obesity-related conditions. based programs have shown significant results. EXAMPLES OF COMMUNITY-BASED INTERVENTIONS TARGETING ADULTS “…STRONG EVIDENCE EXISTS THAT COMMUNITY-WIDE CAMPAIGNS ARE EFFECTIVE IN INCREASING LEVELS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY, AS MEASURED BY AN INCREASE IN THE PERCENTAGE OF PEOPLE ENGAGING IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY, ENERGY EXPENDITURE, OR OTHER MEASURE OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY.” — TASK FORCE ON COMMUNITY PREVENTIVE SERVICES460 I In Wheeling, West Virginia, officials imple- terol, blood sugar levels, excess body weight, mented a campaign to promote physical activ- smoking, and a sedentary lifestyle. Over the ity among sedentary adults ages 50-65 called course of the four-week program, participants Wheeling Walks. The community-wide cam- experienced a significant drop in the number paign used paid advertising, public relations, of risk factors from 3.4 to 2.3.462 and public health education activities to pro- I In Fulton County, Georgia, officials imple- mote at least 30 minutes of walking almost mented the REACH OUT campaign to edu- every day. The eight-week campaign led to a cate people about cardiovascular disease. 23 percent increase in the number of people Within two years, the percentage of adult par- observed walking.461 ticipants who regularly engaged in moderate- I In Rockford, Illinois, public health officials de- to-vigorous physical activity increased from veloped the Coronary Health Improvement 25 percent to 29 percent. During this period, Project (CHIP), a four-week community-based the percentage of adults who reported check- intensive educational lifestyle intervention pro- ing total blood cholesterol levels increased gram, designed to help participants improve from 69 percent to 80 percent, and the per- their diet, quit smoking, and exercise daily. centage of adults who smoked decreased Participants were evaluated for coronary risk from 26 percent to 21 percent.463 factors including high blood pressure, choles- 80 I In Broome County, New York, more than The program featured such activities as nutri- three of every five adults are either over- tion education tours in supermarkets, food la- weight or obese. The county used a CDC beling, smoke-free areas, walking and cycling grant from the Steps to a Healthier US pro- campaigns, and advertising in local media. A gram (now called Healthy Communities) to follow-up survey five years after the interven- help families in rural areas become more ac- tion found that residents who were exposed tive. Within one year, the program led to an in- to the Hartslag Limburg project had signifi- crease in the percentage of people who walk cantly better outcomes over time for BMI, for 30 minutes or more per day five days a waist circumference, blood pressure, and, in week -- from 51 percent to 61 percent.464 women, blood sugar levels.466 I In Oslo, Norway, public health officials imple- I A 10-year project in North Karelia, Finland, mented a low-cost three-year community- to address the high rates of cardiovascular dis- based physical activity intervention program, ease among the population used a community- Romsås in Motion. The program, which in- based preventive approach. The program was cluded information dissemination, physical ac- aimed at the total population in the town, but tivity groups, and individual group counseling, with a special focus on middle-aged men, targeted a multiethnic, low-income neighbor- whose CVD rates were especially high. The in- hood with a large immigrant population. The tervention had five components, including the intervention led to an increase in physical ac- use of media and general education activities to tivity. In addition, only half as many people disseminate healthy messages; training of local gained weight in the intervention group as health personnel and public health groups; and compared with the control group.465 the reorganization of health services. An evalu- ation of the 10-year intervention showed signifi- I In the Maastricht region of the Netherlands, cant reductions in risk factors for men, including public health officials implemented a commu- smoking (36 percent); cholesterol levels (11 nity-based intervention project called Hartslag percent) and blood pressure (five percent). Limburg, or Heartbeat Limburg, which en- Similar changes were observed in women, ex- couraged adult residents to become more ac- cept for smoking, where the number of female tive, reduce their fat intake, and stop smoking. smokers was initially much lower.467 81 STOPPING THE PROGRESSION OF DISEASE: EXAMPLE OF DIABETES PREVENTION AND CONTROL Stopping pre-diabetes from becoming diabetes: NIH room-style meetings focused on building knowledge and and CDC funded a clinical trial called the Diabetes Preven- skills for goal setting, self-monitoring and problem-solv- tion Program (DPP), which consisted of more than 3,000 ing. The control group was offered standard diabetes- pre-diabetic individuals (people who were overweight and prevention advice. At the four- to six-month follow-up had high blood sugar levels but not high enough to be classi- visit, body weight had significantly decreased by six per- fied as diabetes) in 27 communities in the United States. The cent in the intervention participants and by two percent study found that participants who lost a modest amount of in the control participants. These differences persisted at weight through dietary changes and increased physical activ- the 12-14 month follow-up visits. The total cost for the ity sharply reduced their chances of developing diabetes.468 group lifestyle intervention? $250 per year. The study I The DPP participants who were part of the “lifestyle inter- concludes, “By lowering the cost of and expanding the vention group” received intensive training in diet, physical accessibility to diabetes-prevention services, the YMCA activity, and behavior modification. By eating less fat and may serve not only to increase the number of individuals fewer calories and exercising for a total of 150 minutes a with pre-diabetes who have access to and can pay for evi- week, they aimed to lose seven percent of their body weight dence-based diabetes prevention; it may also provide a and maintain that loss. Participants in this group reduced compelling model for health-plan reimbursement. This their risk of developing diabetes by 58 percent. Lifestyle provides yet another compelling reason to develop and changes worked particularly well for participants ages 60 and test novel strategies that link community-based program older, reducing their risk by 71 percent. Not only did half of delivery with existing clinical services that could help to the participants enrolled in the lifestyle intervention program identify and activate more adults with pre-diabetes.”471 achieve a weight loss of seven percent or more by the end Stopping a person with diabetes from developing dia- of the six-month curriculum, but 38 percent of these partici- betes-related complications: If a person who becomes pants kept the weight off more than three years later. The diabetic receives proper treatment and controls the disease study found that taking medication (metformin) also reduced by avoiding additional weight gain, maintaining a healthy diet risk (by 31 percent), but this result was less dramatic than and engaging in regular physical activity, that person could for the group that focused on nutrition and activity changes. avoid or delay a range of potential conditions that often de- Metformin was effective for both men and women, but it velop over time. According to the National Institute of Dia- was least effective in people ages 45 and older. betes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) at NIH:472 I In 2008, a study published by the Indiana University I A person with diabetes is at least twice as likely as someone School of Medicine found that the DPP program could be who does not have diabetes to have heart disease or a stroke. successfully adopted by community-based organizations I Diabetes is the most common cause of kidney failure. such as the YMCA.469 According to Dr. Ronald Acker- I About 60 to 70 percent of people with diabetes have man, the lead author, “In our study we were able to train some form of neurological condition. This can lead to dif- lay people in the community to deliver the program at ferent symptoms, including pain, tingling, or numbness; the YMCA, an environment accessible to many people loss of feeling in the hands, arms, feet, and legs; the inabil- with pre-diabetes, to help them sustain lifestyle ity to focus the eye, double vision, aching behind one eye, changes.”470 With more than 2,500 facilities serving more or paralysis on one side of the face, called Bell’s palsy. In than 10,000 inner city, suburban and rural communities some cases, people lose the ability to walk or the use of nationwide and a long history of implementing successful other limbs, and they may even need amputations. health promotion programs, the YMCA is in a unique po- sition to reach persons with pre-diabetes. In this study, I Having high blood glucose and high blood pressure for a 92 individuals were enrolled in two groups. The interven- long time can cause retina damage, which can result in tion group received a core curriculum involving 16 class- the partial loss of vision or blindness. PRIVATE INSURERS WOULD SAVE, TOO Private insurers who cover retiree benefits also would realize cal activity helped control health care costs and utilization, more so savings for reducing lifetime health care costs for individuals. than controlling BMI. The authors note that physical activity, “…may compensate, to some extent, for the adverse effects of A number of corporate and private wellness and prevention overweight and obesity and prevent some of the health service uti- programs also have been shown to help significantly control re- lization associated with overweight and obesity among this tiree obesity-related health costs. Medicare retiree population.”473 The findings suggest that wellness For instance, results from a 2005 study of General Motors Corpo- programs that promote physical activity could be effective in im- ration retirees age 65 and older and their spouses found that physi- proving Medicare beneficiaries’ health status and thus reduce costs. 82 Recommendations T he health of Americans has suffered over the past three decades as obesity has reached epidemic proportions. The combination of poor nutrition and not enough physical activity have contributed to two-thirds of adults becoming either obese or overweight and nearly 23 million children obese or overweight. 7 SECTION Many of the forces that have contributed to our national weight gain are deeply ingrained in our culture, such as an increased reliance on pre- pared foods and eating out, and the greater dis- tances people have to travel between home, work, schools, and shopping areas that have led to an increased reliance on cars and motorized transport, which make them particularly chal- lenging to address. The current economic crisis is likely to intensify the obesity epidemic as more Americans become uninsured or underinsured and have fewer op- tions for care available and as healthier, high-cost foods become increasing unaffordable. As more Americans face trying to manage health issues with fewer resources, it is time to redouble na- tional efforts to address the obesity epidemic. To improve the health of Americans and control health care costs, obesity prevention and control must become a national priority. The country’s health and well-being require that we take ac- tion. Obesity is one of the nation’s most over- whelming health problems, but up to now, policies to address it have been limited and under-resourced. As one of the nation’s most overwhelming health problems, combating obesity must be a The good news is that there is increasing evi- central objective of health reform, and the coun- dence that small changes can add up to make a try needs to develop a strategic approach to ad- big difference. A little can go a long way toward dress obesity. improving the nation’s health. The President should make dealing with obesity If we develop effective strategies to help Ameri- a high priority, and the federal government cans eat better, move more and manage existing should take the lead to create a National Strategy to obesity-related conditions, we could make huge Combat Obesity to serve as a comprehensive, real- strides toward improving health and quality of life istic plan to outline roles and responsibilities and and reducing disease rates and health care costs. demand accountability. The strategy must in- Some changes will be harder to make than oth- volve every agency of the federal government, ers, but change is necessary. It is the role of gov- state and local governments, businesses, commu- ernment -- at the federal, state, and local levels -- nities, schools, families, and individuals. to provide the leadership needed to ignite and A strong national commitment by the nation’s incentivize change and to take away obstacles. leaders to combat obesity could yield significant The government should work with communities returns -- sparing millions of people from seri- to help make healthy choices easy choices for ous diseases and saving billions of dollars. more Americans. 83 A. MAKING OBESITY PREVENTION AND CONTROL A HIGH PRIORITY OF HEALTH REFORM High health care costs threaten to bankrupt In order to incorporate prevention of obesity American businesses, and poor health is putting and related diseases into health reform, TFAH the nation’s economic security in jeopardy. recommends that: Keeping people healthier is one of the most effec- 1. A Dedicated Funding Stream for prevention tive ways to lower health care costs and ensure that and public health must be established; our workforce is strong and productive enough to 2. Universal Obesity-Related Health Care Bene- compete in the challenging global economy. fits should be made available; and Universal, quality coverage for all Americans is 3. Obesity Interventions Should Be Targeted to an important goal. However, coverage alone is the Pre-Medicare Population to help keep not enough. Finding ways to prevent disease people healthier before they reach old age. and keep people healthier in the first place must be a high priority for health reform. 1. A Dedicated Funding Stream: Establishing a Public Health and Wellness Trust Fund TFAH believes that a reformed health care financing grams and other public health functions to sur- system must include stable and dedicated funding for round, support, and strengthen the health care de- core public health functions -- including prevention of livery system. The Trust Fund would finance: obesity and related diseases. I The core governmental public health func- Federal, state, local, and community efforts tions of assessment, assurance, and policy de- aimed at preventing obesity and related diseases velopment at the federal, state, and local levels. need to have reliable resources to support a re- I Community-based obesity-prevention pro- formed health system. grams, including programs to improve access TFAH recommends that a Public Health and to nutritious foods and promote increased Wellness Trust Fund be established through a physical activity, which can be delivered mandatory appropriation or set-aside of a por- through governmental agencies and non-gov- tion of new revenues generated through the fi- ernmental agencies. nancing of health reform. I Workforce training and development as well I Resources from the Trust Fund would be al- as public health research. located to specific public health programs, in- The Trust Fund would not support clinical pre- cluding programs to improve nutrition and ventive services, such as screening and immu- physical activity in communities. Funding nizations, because it is assumed that these would provided from the Trust Fund would aug- be covered benefits under a reformed health in- ment, not supplant, current annual baseline surance system. During the transition to uni- funding for public health programs (Func- versal coverage, however, it may be necessary to tion 550 in the current Federal budget). use the Trust Fund to cover clinical preventive Specifically, the Trust Fund would support expan- services for the uninsured under existing pub- sion of obesity- and other disease-prevention pro- lic health service agency programs. 84 2. Universal Obesity-Related Health Care Benefits Health reform should ensure every American tion and -treatment coverage, including screen- has access to coverage for preventive medical ings, counseling, and managed care that takes services, including nutrition and obesity coun- an integrated approach to coordinating all obe- seling and screening for obesity-related diseases, sity-related conditions a patient may have. In such as type 2 diabetes, heart disease, and some order to assess the coverage and its impact, the forms of cancer. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) should be required to provide an annual Every American should have access to the most report to Congress about the numbers of en- effective practices for preventing, controlling, rollees receiving obesity-related benefits in their and treating obesity and obesity-related condi- programs, and efforts that have been made to tions. Policies also should be put in place to en- try to reduce and prevent obesity in these pop- courage the development and incorporation of ulations. A bonus program also should be set emerging and innovative new practices as they up to provide incentives for states that provide become available. clinical obesity prevention benefits within CHIP In particular, Medicare, Medicaid, and CHIP and/or Medicaid programs. should include comprehensive obesity-preven- 3. Obesity Interventions Should be Targeted to the Pre-Medicare Population Millions of Americans enter Medicare with health in Medicare spending between 1987 and 2002.475 conditions that could have been lessened or Policymakers should take action to address one of avoided. The graying of the American population the major drivers of Medicare expenditures -- coupled with rising obesity rates among older modifiable chronic disease risk factors -- before in- adults is severely straining the federal safety net. dividuals become Medicare eligible. Community- The current health care system is set up in op- based and clinical interventions targeted to the position to the goal of ensuring people reach the pre-Medicare population (adults ages 55–64) age of Medicare as healthy as they can be. Cur- should focus on modifying nutrition and physical rently, Medicare is forbidden by law from ad- activity behaviors that are shown to help reduce dressing services to the pre-Medicare population or control a variety of chronic diseases, including to try to improve their health. Yet, Medicare and diabetes, cardiovascular disease, stroke, kidney dis- taxpayers bear the burden of providing for peo- ease, arthritis and certain types of cancers. ple who could be significantly healthier or have Congress should authorize the establishment of their existing conditions better managed. a Medicare Demonstration Project. This should According to the Congressional Budget Office allow the HHS secretary to work with the Ad- (CBO), Medicare spending is projected to more ministrator of CMS and the Director of CDC to than triple from three percent of U.S. gross do- implement a five-year demonstration project to mestic product (GDP) in 2007 to 10 percent by test whether community-level public health in- 2057.474 Much of the growth in Medicare is as- terventions targeting individuals ages 55–64 re- sociated with patients under management for sult in lower rates of chronic disease for obesity-related conditions, such as diabetes, hy- individuals entering the Medicare program, pertension, and high cholesterol, which collec- thereby reducing costs. tively accounted for 16.1 percent of the increase 85 B. LAUNCHING A NATIONAL STRATEGY TO COMBAT OBESITY. For significant change to happen, combating needs to be a comprehensive, realistic plan that obesity must become a national priority. This involves every agency of the federal government, report provides an overview of many promising state and local governments, businesses, com- policies and programs that have been enacted, munities, schools, families, and individuals. It but they are not at a level that is sufficient for must outline clear roles and responsibilities and dealing with the severity of the problem. The demand accountability. Our leaders should chal- country is failing to address the obesity epidemic lenge the entire country to do their part to help in proportion to the threat it poses. improve our nation’s health. In recent years, the IOM, HHS, and the Surgeon In the 2008 edition of F as in Fat, TFAH provided General’s Office have all issued reports detail- a framework for a National Strategy to Combat Obe- ing the pervasiveness and impact of the epi- sity. The full framework can be found on TFAH’s demic and have called for national action to Web site at http://healthyamericans.org/obesity/. address the crisis.476,477,478,479 Some highlights and summary recommendations include: TFAH calls on the nation’s leaders to create a Na- tional Strategy to Combat Obesity. This strategy Federal Government – I The Administration and Congress should acknowledge that addressing Overarching the obesity crisis is a national priority. I A detailed review of federal policies should be conducted to determine how they impact physical activity, nutrition, and obesity. I A sub-cabinet working group should be convened to take a government-wide approach to combating key public health problems, including obesity, and an official should be designated in each department who will focus on obesity-related policies. I Health reviews should be conducted to examine the impact of new domestic policies, programs, and budgets on physical activity, nutrition, and obesity. I The government should develop clear and consistent recommendations for the public about nutrition and physical activity, and make this information widely available. I Sufficient resources must be given to implement and evaluate obesity policies. Federal Government I The process to revise school nutrition guidelines to meet the 2005 Dietary Guidelines for and Schools Americans should be accelerated. I Congress should consider expanding the authority of the USDA to set nutrition standards for competitive foods in schools. I The U.S. Department of Education, HHS, and the President’s Council on Physical Fitness should set national standards for physical education and physical activity in schools. I The Carol M. White Physical Education Program and the CDC’s Division of Adolescent and School Health grants should be fully funded and expanded. I The Department of Education should consider ways to incorporate physical activity and nutrition standards into the 21st Century Community Learning Centers program to provide support for before- and after-school programs. Federal Government I The government should set an example for private organizations by encouraging workplace and Business wellness and providing comprehensive health benefits for obesity within the Federal Employee Health Benefits Plan. I The government should find ways to incentivize employers to provide workplace wellness programs and preventive care coverage. I Medicare, Medicaid, and CHIP should update and increase obesity-related coverage. (A longer discussion of this topic can be found in the Making Obesity Prevention and Control a High Priority of Health Reform section of the recommendations.) 86 Federal Government The government should: and the Food and I Work with industry to eliminate junk food advertising to children. Beverage Industry I Work with industry to develop clear and useful nutrition labeling and ensure packaged foods and meals reflect recommended portion sizes. I Require retail food outlets to provide menu labeling. Federal Government The government should: and Agriculture I Examine subsidies for growing fruits and vegetables. I Support small farmers and local food systems. I Incentivize healthy food consumption. I Revise school and government procurement policies. Federal Government The government should: and Research I Strengthen primary data collection systems. I Fund community-level research and evaluation. State Government States should: I Develop state-specific obesity plans. I Review programs and policies across state agencies to evaluate their impact on nutrition, physical activity, and obesity. I Dedicate revenue to implementing obesity-prevention and-control programs. I Provide workplace wellness programs and strong preventive service benefits to state employees. I Update and increase obesity-related coverage in state Medicaid and CHIP programs. I Leverage purchasing power by requiring a greater emphasis on nutritional value as a priority in food-purchasing bidding processes. I Evaluate current snack taxes. I Require menu labeling. The California menu labeling law provides a model for requirements. Local Government Local governments should: I Provide improved access to healthy foods in low-income communities. I Use zoning laws to encourage healthy food providers to locate in under-served neighborhoods and maintain a ratio requirement for fast food restaurants to grocers and farmers’ markets. I Require menu labeling. I Encourage mixed-use commercial and residential areas and walkable neighborhoods. I Examine the health impact of new construction. I Encourage building design that prompts the use of stairs and offers other spaces in commercial and public buildings that facilitate activity. I Encourage green space development and build more sidewalks. I Encourage the use of transportation funds for mass transit and highway alternatives. I Modernize school-site construction requirements so that schools can be within walking or biking distance for children. Community and Community and faith-based organizations should: Faith-Based I Offer healthy foods and incorporate obesity-prevention messages into events. Organizations I Provide opportunities for safe and supervised activity for children. I Provide no- or low-cost physical activity opportunities and nutrition counseling. 87 Schools I The nutritional value of foods in schools should be improved. L Nutrition standards at schools should be higher than those required by USDA, such as those recommended by the IOM Food in Schools report, and include a ban on sugar-sweetened drinks. L Free drinking water should be provided in schools. L School districts should revise food contract policies and priorities to focus on maximum nutritional value of food served in schools. L Schools should evaluate alternative fundraising options that do not involve providing foods that do not meet specified nutrition standards such as those recommended by the IOM Food in Schools report to students. L Professional development should be provided to school food-service staff. I School districts should ensure physical activity is part of students’ daily lives. L Students should have time for activity during the school day, and physical education should be improved and requirements should be increased. L School districts should work with communities to make it easier for students to walk and bike to school. L Agreements should be developed so recreation spaces at schools and community centers can be made available for children to use before and after school when possible. I School districts should evaluate and refine body mass index (BMI) and other health-screening initiatives. I Nutrition and health education programs should be improved. I School districts should assess their schools’ health policies and programs, including their wellness policies, and develop a plan for improvements. Families and I Individuals must learn to factor health considerations into their choices about eating and exercise. Individuals I Family members should be encouraged to think about the impact of their choices on others in their family. For instance, parents should be aware of the impact of buying foods with limited nutritional value for their children. I Mothers should be encouraged to breastfeed infants. I Parents and guardians should limit their children’s amount of screen time so that kids see fewer advertisements for unhealthy food and beverages, eat less junk food, and have more time to be active. I Additional recommendations for individuals and families can be found on the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Center to Prevention Childhood Obesity Web site: http://www.reversechildhoodobesity.org/content/what-individuals-and-families-can-do-0. Employers and I Employers should provide workplace wellness programs and strong preventive care benefits. Insurers I Employers should provide employees with opportunities to be physically active during the day, including fitness breaks. I Employers and insurance providers should make coverage available for nutrition counseling, weight-loss and weight-management programs, and other services to prevent and reduce obesity and related chronic diseases. I Insurers should make preventive services available and affordable to companies of all sizes, not just large companies. I Insurance companies should not discriminate based on a person’s weight or use obesity as a risk factor for determining eligibility for insurance coverage or treatment. Food and Beverage I Food, beverage, and marketing companies should develop and promote products that encourage Industry and healthy eating, and inform consumers about healthy options. Agribusiness and I The Grocery Manufacturers Association should encourage members to open supermarkets Farmers in underserved communities, and grocery chains should work with such communities to develop mutually beneficial strategies for locating there. I Farmers’ markets should be equipped to redeem SNAP and WIC coupons. I Farmers should work with schools to develop farm to school initiatives. Research Community I Researchers should focus on ways to evaluate the effectiveness of community-based disease- prevention programs. I Researchers should increase their focus on translating research about health findings into practical advice for policymakers and the public. 88 Methodology for Obesity and Other Rates Using BRFSS A APPENDIX D ata for this analysis was obtained from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) dataset (publicly available on the web at www.cdc.gov/brfss). This analysis was conducted by Daniel Eisenberg, PhD and Edward N. Okeke, MBBS, MPH, of the Department of Health Management and Policy of the University of Michigan, School of Public Health. BRFSS is an annual cross-sectional survey de- Variables of interest included BMI, physical inac- signed to measure behavioral risk factors in the tivity and diabetes. BMI was calculated by dividing adult population (18 years of age or older) living self-reported weight in kilograms by the square of in households. Data are collected from a random self-reported height in metres. The variable ‘obe- sample of adults (one per household) through a sity’ is the percentage of all adults in a given state telephone survey. The BRFSS currently includes who are classified as obese (where obesity is de- data from 50 states, the District of Columbia, fined as BMI greater than or equal to 30). Another Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Virgin Islands. The variable ‘overweight’ was created to capture the most recent data available was 2008. percentage of adults in a given state who were ei- ther overweight or obese. An overweight adult is To account for the complex nature of the survey one with a BMI greater than or equal to 25 but less design and obtain estimates accurately repre- than 30. For the physical inactivity variable a binary sentative at the state level, researchers used sam- indicator equal to one was created for adults who ple weights provided by the CDC in the dataset. reported not engaging in physical activity or exer- The main purpose of weighting is to reduce bias cise during the previous thirty days other than in population estimates by up-weighting popula- their regular job. For diabetes, researchers created tion sub-groups that are under represented and a binary variable equal to one if the respondent re- down-weighting those that are over represented ported ever being told by a doctor that he/she had in the sample. Also estimation of variance, which diabetes. Researchers excluded all cases of gesta- indicates precision and is used in calculating tional and borderline diabetes as well as all cases confidence intervals, needs to take into account where the individual was unsure. the fact that the elements in the sample will gen- erally not be statistically independent as a result Researchers calculated rolling three year aver- of the multistage sampling design. ages, first by averaging data from 2005-2007 and then by averaging data from 2006-2008 (after Researchers specified the sampling plan to merging data from the relevant time periods). STATA using the svyset command and the fol- Researchers report mean proportions for each lowing set of weights: sample weight variable (FI- three-year period as well as standard errors and NALWT), first-stage stratification variable 95 percent confidence intervals for all variables (STSTR), and primary sampling unit variable of interest. In addition researchers carried out a (PSU).480 Omission of the stratification variable Pearson statistical test of proportions and report in STATA implies no stratification of PSUs prior which states experienced a significant increase to first-stage sampling. Omission of the primary or decrease (significant at the 5 percent level). sampling unit variable implies one-stage sam- pling of elements and no clustering of sampled The 2005-2007 sample consisted of 1,088,321 elements. Omission of the sample weight im- observations while the 2006-2008 sample con- plies equally weighted sample elements. Mean sisted of 1,143,720 observations. Researchers ex- proportions for each variable were estimated cluded all observations with missing values from using the svy: proportion command. the analysis.481 89 BAPPENDIX Methodology for Obesity Rates for Adults Ages 55-64 and for Seniors Age 65 and Older Using BRFSS Data for this analysis was obtained from the Be- plies equally weighted sample elements. Mean havioral Risk Factor Surveillance System proportions for each variable were estimated (BRFSS) dataset (publicly available on the web using the svy: proportion command. at www.cdc.gov/brfss). This analysis was con- For this analysis researchers constructed two ducted by Daniel Eisenberg, PhD and Edward variables: obesity (equal to one if body mass N. Okeke, MBBS, MPH, of the Department of index was greater than or equal to 30) and both Health Management and Policy of the Univer- (equal to one if body mass index was greater sity of Michigan, School of Public Health. than or equal to 25). Note that the latter vari- BRFSS is an annual cross-sectional survey de- able captures both overweight as well as obese signed to measure behavioral risk factors in the individuals. Researchers constructed this vari- adult population (18 years of age or older) living able separately for two sub-groups of individu- in households. Data are collected from a ran- als: Medicare-eligible individuals (age greater dom sample of adults (one per household) than or equal to 65) and pre-Medicare individ- through a telephone survey. The BRFSS cur- uals (age between 55 and 64), and for three dif- rently includes data from 50 states, the District ferent time periods: 1985-1987, 1995-1997 and of Columbia, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Vir- 2005-2007. To ensure consistency across all gin Islands. The researchers downloaded data three time periods, researchers constructed the for three separate time periods; 19985-1987, BMI variable by hand, converting weight from 1995-1997 and 2005-2007. pounds to kg, and height from inches to metres and then employing the following formula: To account for the complex nature of the survey BMI = kg/m2. design and obtain estimates accurately repre- sentative at the state level, researchers used sam- Researchers excluded all observations where ei- ple weights provided by the CDC in the dataset. ther weight or height was coded as DK or RF.483 The main purpose of weighting is to reduce bias Researchers also excluded all observations with in population estimates by up-weighting popula- missing values.484 For both variables researchers tion sub-groups that are under represented and calculated three-year averages for each sub-sam- down-weighting those that are over represented ple for each of the three time periods. The re- in the sample. Also, estimation of variance search team reports mean proportions of obesity (which indicates precision and is used in calcu- and both for each three-year period (for each lating confidence intervals), needs to take into sub-sample) as well as standard errors and 95% account the fact that the elements in the sample confidence intervals. In addition they report will generally not be statistically independent as which states experienced a significant increase a result of the multistage sampling design. or decrease (significant at the 5% level based on a Pearson statistical test of proportions). Be- Researchers specified the sampling plan to cause they have three time periods they do a STATA482 using the svyset command and the fol- pairwise comparison and report three sets of re- lowing set of weights: sample weight variable (FI- sults: a comparison between 1985-1987 and NALWT), first-stage stratification variable 1995-1997; between 1995-1997 and 2005-2007 (STSTR), and primary sampling unit variable and between 1985-1987 and 2005-2007. Re- (PSU). Omission of the stratification variable in searchers were unable to make comparisons be- STATA implies no stratification of PSUs prior to tween 1985-1987 and 1995-1997 for 19 states first-stage sampling. Omission of the primary because data was unavailable for those states, sampling unit variable implies one-stage sam- and for one state (Virgin Islands) between 1995- pling of elements and no clustering of sampled 1997 and 2005-2007 for the same reason. elements. Omission of the sample weight im- 90 Methodology for Overweight and Obesity Rates Using NSCH C APPENDIX This analysis was conducted by Edward N. fidence intervals), needs to take into account the Okeke, MBBS, MPH, of the Department of fact that the elements in the sample will generally Health Management and Policy of the Univer- not be statistically independent as a result of the sity of Michigan, School of Public Health. multistage sampling design. Estimates based on the sampling weights generalize to the non-insti- Data for this analysis was obtained from the Na- tutionalized population of children in each state. tional Survey of Children’s Health (NSCH), a module of the State and Local Area Integrated Researchers specified the sampling plan to Telephone Survey (SLAITS), conducted by the STATA486 using the svyset command and the fol- National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for lowing set of weights: sample weight variable Disease Control and Prevention. (NSCHWT), first-stage stratification variable (STATE), and primary sampling unit variable This survey was designed to produce national (IDNUMR). Mean proportions for each variable and state-specific prevalence estimates for a vari- of interest were estimated using the svy: propor- ety of physical, emotional, and behavioral health tion command. indicators and measures of children’s experi- ences with the health care system. The NSCH The objective of this analysis was to generate esti- survey sample is a random-digit-dialed sample of mates of the proportion of children classified as households with children less than 18 years of obese and at risk for obesity in each state. An age. One child is randomly selected in each iden- obese child was defined as one with a BMI-for-age tified household to be the subject of the survey greater than or equal to the 95th percentile, while and the respondent is a parent or guardian who a child at risk for obesity was one with a BMI-for- knows about the child’s health and health age greater than or equal to the 85th percentile care.485 This survey begun in 2003, is adminis- but lower than the 95th percentile. Percentiles tered in all 50 states and the District of Colum- were based on the 2000 CDC growth charts and bia. The most recent year available was 2007. are gender and age-specific.487 Height and weight were based on parent reports and were not inde- To account for the complex nature of the survey pendently measured. To ensure consistent esti- design and to obtain estimates that were repre- mates, researchers restricted the sample to sentative at the state level, researchers used sam- include only children aged 10-17 years.488 ple weights provided in the dataset. The main purpose of weighting is to reduce bias in popula- Researchers report obesity and at risk estimates tion estimates by up-weighting population sub- for 2003 and 2007, including standard errors and groups that are under represented and 95 percent confidence intervals. The 2007 sam- down-weighting those that are over represented ple consisted of 44,101 observations while the in the sample. Also, estimation of variance (which 2003 sample consisted of 46,707 observations. indicates precision and is used in calculating con- 91 References 1 U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Na- 16 Trust for America’s Health. Prevention for a Healthier tional Center for Health Statistics. 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Story, and T. Harris. “Be- York, NY: The Conference Board, April 2008. liefs and Attitudes about Obesity among Teachers 159 Sturm, R. “The Effects of Obesity, Smoking, and and School Health Care Providers Working with Drinking on Medical Problems and Costs.” Health Adolescents.” Journal of Nutrition Education 31, no. Affairs 21, no. 2 (March/April 2002): 245-253. 1 (1999): 3-9. 160 Ostbye, T., J. M. Dement, and K. M. Krause. “Obesity 181 O’Brien, K.S., J.A. Hunter, and M. Banks. “Implicit and Workers’ Compensation: Results from the Duke Anti-Fat Bias in Physical Educators: Physical Attrib- Health and Safety Surveillance System.” Archives of utes, Ideology, and Socialisation.” International Internal Medicine 167, no. 8 (2007): 766-773. Journal of Obesity 31, no. 2 (2007): 308-314. 161 The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, the Ameri- 182 Canning, H. and J. 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Schumaker, and B.P Yawn. 163 Ostbye et al, “Obesity and Workers’ Compensation.” “Overweight Women Delay Medical Care.” Archives of Family Medicine 3, no. 10 (1994): 888-892. 164 Pronk et al, “Work Performance and Physical Activity.” 188 Fontaine, K.R., M.S. Faith, D.B. Allison, and L.J 165 Aldana, S. G. and N. P. Pronk. “Health Promotion Cheskin. “Body Weight and Health Care among Programs, Modifiable Health Risks, and Employee Women in the General Population.” Archives of Absenteeism.” Journal of Occupational and Family Medicine, 7, no. 4 (1998): 381-384. Environmental 43, no. 1 (2001): 36-46. 189 Rand, C.S., and A.M. Macgregor. “Morbidly Obese 166 Gordian Health Solutions. Managing the Obesity Patients’ Perceptions of Social Discrimination Problem: A Case Study with Measurable Results. Before and After Surgery for Obesity.” Southern Nashville, TN: Gordian Health Solutions, 2007. Medical Journal 83, no. 12 (1990): 1398-1395. 96 190 Schwimmer J.B., T.M. Burwinkle, and J.W. Varni. 213 D.C. Public Schools Local Wellness Policy: “Health-Related Quality of Life of Severely Obese Progress To Date and Moving Forward, April 2009. Children and Adolescents.” Journal of the American http://www.actionforhealthykids.org/state_pro- Medical Association 289, no. 14 (2003): 1851-1853. file.php?state=DC (accessed April 13, 2009). 191 Veugelers, P.J. and A.L. Fitzgerald. “Effectiveness 214 U.S. Government Accountability Office. School Meal of School Programs in Preventing Childhood Obe- Programs: Competitive Foods Are Available in Many sity: A Multilevel Comparison.” American Journal of Schools; Actions Taken to Restrict Them Differ by State and Public Health 95, no. 3 (2005): 432-435. Locality. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Ac- 192 Trust for America’s Health, F as in Fat 2008, p. 56. countability Office, 2004. http://www.gao.gov/ new.items/d04673.pdf (accessed May 21, 2009). 193 U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). Incorporat- ing the 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans into School 215 Vermont Department of Health. Nutrition Guidelines Meals. SP 04-2008. Washington, D.C.: USDA, 2007. for Competitive Food and Beverage Sales in Schools. Report to the Legislature on Act 203 Section 16 January 15, 2009. 194 Ibid. Burlington, VT: Vermont Department of Health, 195 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition 2009. http://www.healthvermont.org/admin/legisla- Service, Office of Research, Nutrition and Analysis. ture/documents/SchoolNutritionGuidelines_legrpt0 School Nutrition Dietary Assessment Study-III, Vol. I: 11509.pdf (accessed March 27, 2009). School Foodservice, School Food Environment, and Meals 216 Gordon, A.R., M.K. Crepinsek, R. Nogales, and E. Offered and Served. Alexandria, VA: USDA, 2007. Condon. 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Nutrition Standards for Foods 199 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutri- in Schools: Leading the Way Toward Healthier Youth. tion Service. “10 Reasons to Try Breakfast in the Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 2007. Classroom.” http://www.fns.usda.gov/CND/Break- fast/expansion/10reasons-breakfast_flyer.pdf (ac- 221 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutri- cessed May 21, 2009). tion Service. Foods Sold in Competition with USDA School Meal Programs: A Report to Congress. Washing- 200 Food Research and Action Center. “School Break- ton, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2001. fast in America’s Big Cities: School Year 2006- http://www.fns.usda.gov/cnd/Lunch/Competi- 2007.” January 2009. http://www.frac.org/pdf/ tiveFoods/report_congress.htm (accessed April urbanbreakfast08.pdf (accessed April 10, 2009). 25, 2008). 201 DC Hunger Solutions: Ending Hunger in the Na- 222 Ibid. tion’s Capital. “D.C. Begins Serving Breakfast in the Classroom.” March 17, 2009. 223 U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO). http://www.dchunger.org/pdf/dcps_bfast_in_class School Meal Programs: Competitive Foods Are Widely Avail- room.pdf (accessed April 10, 2009). able and Generate Substantial Revenues for Schools. Wash- ington, D.C.: GAO, 2005. http://www.gao.gov/ 202 Ibid. new.items/d05563.pdf (accessed May 28, 2008). 203 Ibid. 224 Wharton et al, “Changing Nutrition Standards in 204 Ibid. Schools.” 205 Ibid. 225 Ibid. 206 New York City Coalition Against Hunger Press Re- 226 Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. “How Schools lease. “Advocates Praise Mayor Bloomberg’s Expan- Can Raise Money Without Unhealthy Vending Con- sion of In-Classroom School Breakfast Program.” tracts and Fundraisers.” http://www.rwjf.org/re- November 3, 2008. http://www.nyccah.org/ ports/grr/052181.htm (accessed May 20, 2009). node/405 (accessed April 8, 2009). 227 Institute of Medicine. Preventing Childhood Obesity: 207 Ibid. Health in the Balance. Washington, D.C.: The Na- 208 Ibid. tional Academies Press, 2005. 209 Educators Journey into Nutrition Education. 228 U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “Breakfast at School: Fast and Healthy Food for “SHPPS 2006: Overview.” http://www.cdc.gov/ Thought.” http://www.nutritionexplorations.org/ healthyyouth/shpps/2006/factsheets/pdf/FS_Ove educators/school-nutrition-breakfast.asp (accessed rview_SHPPS2006.pdf (accessed May 21, 2009). April 8, 2009). 229 Trust for America’s Health, F as in Fa 2008, p. 56. 210 Ibid. 230 U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 211 Ibid. “SHPPS 2006: Health Education.” http://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/shpps/2006/fa 212 The Child Nutrition and WIC Reauthorization Act ctsheets/pdf/FS_HealthEducation_SHPPS2006.pd of 2004, Public Law 108-265, Title II, Section 204. f (accessed May 21, 2009). http://www.fns.usda.gov/cnd/governance/Legis- lation/Historical/PL_108-265.pdf (accessed April 231 Trost, Physical Education, Physical Activity. 13, 2009). 97 232 Coe, D.P., J.M. Pivarnik, C.J. Womack, M.J. Reeves, 253 Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. “Arkansas Act and R.M. 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Reauthorization Act of 2009. (P.L. 111-3) 1st sess. 362 Hendry, J. “Family Stress May Make Kids Fat: (February 4, 2009). Study.” January 21, 2009, Reuters Health. 347 Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. “Analysis Shows http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/news/full- Existing Medicaid Benefit Codes Cover Childhood story_74039.html (accessed March 30, 2009). Obesity-Related Health Care Treatment.” 363 Ibid. http://www.rwjf.org/reports/grr/053842.htm (ac- 364 Ludwig, D.S. and H.A. Pollack. “Obesity and the cessed April 23, 2009). Economy: From Crisis to Opportunity.” Journal of 348 The CPT code set, maintained by the American the American Medical Association 301, no. 5 (2009): Medical Association, is used by physicians and other 533-535. health care providers to bill for medical services 365 Smith, R. “Consumers Changing Food Purchasing and procedures. Obesity-related HCPCS (Health Trends.” Feedstuffs, January 5, 2009. Care Financing Administration Common Proce- http://www.feedstuffsfoodlink.com/ME2/dirmod. dure Coding Systems) Level II codes were also se- asp?sid=F4A490F89845425D8362C0250A1FE984& lected. These codes are used for products, supplies, nm=&type=news&mod=News&mid=9A02E3B96F2 and services not included in the CPT codes but A415ABC72CB5F516B4C10&tier=3&nid=BD- often covered by Medicare and other insurers. CFDFA74DE5425991D2C7653C98D279 (accessed 349 Rosenbaum, S., S. Wilensky, M. Cox, and D.B. February 17, 2009). Wright. Reducing Obesity Risks during Childhood: the 366 Ibid. Role of Public and Private Health Insurance. Washington, D.C.: George Washington University Center for 367 Foreman, C.T. Remarks made as moderator of the Health Services Research and Policy, 2005. panel “Changing the Food Environment,” part of http://www.gwumc.edu/sphhs/departments/ the Transatlantic Public Policy Approaches to Tack- healthpolicy/chsrp/downloads/Obesity%20Report ling Obesity and Diet-Related Disease conference %20Final.pdf held in Washington, D.C. on April 8, 2008. 350 Ibid. 368 Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. Souring Econ- omy, Rising Food Prices Could Exacerbate Obesity Epi- 351 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. demic, Experts Warn. October 31, 2008. FY 2010 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Justi- http://www.rwjf.org/childhoodobesity/digest.jsp?i fication of Estimates for Appropriation Committees. Wash- d=8879 (accessed February 19, 2009). ington, D.C.: DHHS, 2009. http://www.cdc.gov/ fmo/topic/Budget%20Information/appropria- 369 Monsivais, P., and A. Drewnowski. “The Rising Cost tions_budget_form_pdf/FY2010_CDC_CJ_Final.pdf of Low-Energy-Density Foods.” Journal of the Ameri- (accessed May 26, 2009). can Dietetic Association 107, no. 12 (2007): 2017-2076. 352 CDC, “CDC’s State-Based Nutrition and Physical 370 Ibid. Activity.” 371 Lubrano, A. “Food Costs Likely to Boost Obesity in 353 U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Poor.” Philadelphia Inquirer, May 6, 2008. “Our Mission: Four Strategies to Promote National 372 FRAC. “Current News & Analysis.” School Health.” U.S. Department of Health and http://www.frac.org/html/news/fsp/2008.11_FSP.h Human Services. http://www.cdc.gov/HealthyY- tm (accessed February 18, 2009). outh/about/mission.htm (accessed June 3, 2008). 373 Parrot, Recession Could Cause. 354 Neal, D., G. Magwood, C. Jenkins, and C.L. Hossler. 374 FRAC, “Current News & Analysis.” “Racial Disparity in the Diagnosis of Obesity among People with Diabetes.” Journal of Health Care for the 375 “Record 31.8 Million on Food Stamps: Government Poor and Underserved 17, no. 2 Suppl (2006); 106-115. Shows Increase of 700,000 Food Stamp Recipients in a Single Month.” CNNMoney.com, March 5, 2009. 101 376 Rosenbaum, D. Food Stamp Benefits Falling Further 397 Rowland, D. “Health Care and Medicaid -- Weather- Behind Rising Food Prices. Washington, D.C.: Center ing the Recession.” New England Journal of Medicine on Budget and Policy Priorities, October 28, 2008. 360, no. 13 (2009): 1273-76. http://www.cbpp.org/7-22-08fa.htm (accessed 398 Ibid. February 18, 2009). 399 Kaiser Commission on Medicaid Facts. “American 377 Feeding America. “Unemployment Reaches Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA): Medicaid Record Levels, Food Banks Struggle to Feed and Health Care Provisions.” March 2009. Hungry Americans.” Press Release, March 6, 2009. http://www.kff.org/medicaid/upload/7872.pdf http://feedingamerica.org/newsroom/press- (accessed April 22, 2009). release-archive/unemployment-rate.aspx (accessed April 7, 2009). 400 Trust for America’s Health. F as in Fat: How Obesity Policies Are Failing in America. Washington, D.C.: 378 Ibid. TFAH, 2008. 379 School Nutrition Association. Saved by the Lunch 401 The CPT code set, maintained by the American Bell: As Economy Sinks, School Nutrition Program Par- Medical Association, is used by physicians and other ticipation Rises. Alexandria, VA: School Nutrition health care providers to bill for medical services Association, December 2008. http://www.school- and procedures. Obesity-related HCPCS (Health nutrition.org/uploadedFiles/School_Nutrition/10 Care Financing Administration Common Proce- 1_News/MediaCenter/PressReleases/Press_Re- dure Coding Systems) Level II codes were also se- lease_Articles/Press_Releases/SavedbytheLunch- lected. These codes are used for products, supplies, Bell.pdf (accessed April 27, 2009). and services not included in the CPT codes but 380 Rathi, R. “More Students Get Subsidized Lunches” often covered by Medicare and other insurers. The Boston Globe, March 23, 2009. 402 Flaccus, G. “Dollars from Dirt: Economy Spurs Home 381 Parham, P. Written Testimony of Penny Parham, Adminis- Garden Boom.” Associated Press March 15, 2009. trative Director, Department of Food and Nutrition, Miami- http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20090315/ap_on_bi_ Dade County, Florida, Public Schools Before the Committee ge/recession_gardening (accessed March 31, 2009). on Education and Labor United States House of Representa- 403 Ibid. tives. Miami, FL: Miami-Dade County Public Schools, March 4, 2008. http://edlabor.house.gov/testi- 404 Ibid. mony/2008-03-04-PennyParham.pdf 405 Ibid. 382 Ibid. 406 American Public Transportation Association. “10.7 383 Glod, M. “Schools Get a Lesson in Lunch Line Eco- Billion Trips Taken on U.S. Public Transportation in nomics: Food Costs Unravel Nutrition Initiatives.” 2008: Highest Level in 52 Years; Ridership Increased The Washington Post, A01, April 14, 2008. as Gas Prices Decline and Jobs Were Lost.” Transit News Release, March 9, 2009. http://www.apta.com/ 384 Hecht, K. Testimony before the Committee on Education media/releases/documents/090309_ridership.pdf and Labor, House of Representatives. San Francisco, (accessed April 1, 2009). CA: California Food Policy Advocates, 2008, http://edlabor.house.gov/testimony/2008-03-04- 407 Ibid. KennethHecht.pdf (accessed April 16, 2008). 408 Besser L.B. and A.L. 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Diabetes Prevention Program into the Community: The DEPLOY Pilot Study.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine 35, no. 4 (2008): 357-363. 104 1730 M Street, NW, Suite 900 Washington, DC 20036 (t) 202-223-9870 (f) 202-223-9871