BRIEF COURSE 
—IN— 
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY 
PREPARED BY 
C. W. PROCTOR, Ph. D., 
American School of Osteopathy, i 
kibksyille, mo. 
kirksvillk: 
JOURNAL PRINTING COMPANY. 
1898. PREFACE. 
Every laboratory has its individuality and every teacher in chemistry must 
adapt another’s text to his peculiar circumstances or make one of his own. 
The American School of Osteopathy is unique and hence no other school has a 
text-book altogether suitable to its use. This fact is the excuse for printing 
another text-book in chemistry. The author is conscious of shortcomings in 
this brief work, there are probably more which he has not noted. He hopes 
by use to be able to improve later editions, until it shall contain in concise 
form the knowledge of the chemistry of the human body necessary to make an 
intelligent student of those who complete the course herein given. I have con- 
sulted the works of Novy, Halliburton, Lea, Hammarsten, Long, Gamgee, Ster- 
ling and others, besides periodical literature on the subject. Having rarely had 
access to original papers I have been unable to give credit to the proper au- 
thorities in many cases. 
C. W. Proctor. Physiological Chemistry. 
INTRODUCTION. 
The human body is composed of a number of elements united into 
more or less complicated compounds. The composition of living tissue 
can be inferred only from the analysis of the dead tissue; and many of the 
changes going on in a living body are very difficult to ascertain. There 
are, however, many changes that are known with reasonable certainty, and 
a study of these, together with compounds excreted, is of great interest and 
importance. 
The elements found in the body are, according to Kirk, carbon, nitro- 
gen, hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, phosphorus, fluorin, chlorin, iodin, silver, 
sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, lithium and iron, and occasionally, 
traces of manganese, copper and lead. These are for the most part in com- 
pounds; though oxygen and nitrogen are found in the blood, and hydrogen 
in the alimentary canal. 
The simplest classification of the organic chemical compounds found 
in the human body is that of carbohydrates, fats andproteids. Some chemists 
use the term albuminoid as equivalent to proteid, while others restrict it to 
include only gelatin, chondrin, nuclein, etc. 
CARBOHYDRATES. 
This group has been defined as containing those compounds which have 
six atoms of carbon, or a multiple of six, and have H and O in the ratio in 
which they exist in water. There are compounds undoubtedly belonging 
to the carbohydrates which have from 4 to 9 atoms of carbon, and others— 
as rhamnose, CeHiaOs—which have H and O in a ratio different from that 
in water. . 
The starches, sugars and gums, besides some allied compounds, com- 
pose this group. They are found chiefly in vegetable tissue, but some exist 
in the human body. Those most abundant' in animal tissue are glucose, 
glycogen, lactose and maltose. Carbohydrates may be classified as follows: 
1. Monosacharids ok Glucoses.- 
Hexoses (CeHtfOe), Dextrose, levulose, galactose. 
Pentoses (C5H1005). 
Rhamnose (C6H1205). 
2. Disaccharids, or Saccharoses (C12H22011). 
Cane sugar, milk sugar, maltose and isomaltose. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
3 
3. POLYSACCHARIDS, (CeHioCf^n: 
Starch, glycogen, dextrin, cellulose and gums. The derivatives 
of starch amylo-dextrin, erythro-dextrin, and achroo-dextrin are also 
included in this group. 
Pentoses (C5H1005).—A pentose has been obtained from the decom- 
position of a glyco-proteid obtained from the pancreas. It has been found 
recently in several urines. Pentoses are reducing agents, but do not fer- 
ment with yeast. 
Monosaccharids. 
Hexoses (CeH^Oe);—Dextrose or grape svgar is found in honey, fruits 
and in many plants. It also exists in small quantities in the blood (0.1 
per cent—0.2 per cent), in urine and in various organs and tissues of the 
body. It is found in large quantities in the blood and urine in diabetes. It 
occurs in the urine after the administration of hydrocyanic acid, phloiid- 
zin, uranium salts, in CO poisoning, and when the supply of oxygen is 
insufficient. Dextrose is formed from pancreatic digestion. After diges- 
tion of large quantities of cane sugar, lactose or glucose, a reducing sub- 
stance appears in the urine; this condition is called “alimentary glycosuria.” 
Dextrose and levulose may be prepared by heating cane sugar with 
dilute mineral acids, (inversion). It is also formed by placing a quantity of 
yeast with cane sugar and putting in a warm place for a few hours; after the 
cane sugar is broken up into dextrose and levulose, these two will feiment 
and form alcohol and carbon di-oxide. 
Starch heated with dilute mineral acids yields first dextrin, finally dex- 
trose. 
Dextrose can be obtained in minute crystals, anhydrous, or with one 
molecule of water. Its crystals are six-sided plates from concentrated 
aqueous solutions, and monoclinic from alcohol. It is insoluble in absolute 
alcohol. It turns the plane of polarized light to the right. Dextrose 
reduces an alkalin copper solution and precipitates Cu2o. One molecule 
of the sugar will reduce almost five atoms of copper. Hence by such a 
solution a quantitive determination may be made. The sugar forms by the 
oxidation of tartronic acid, [CHOH (Co2H>2]. The structural formula for 
dextrose is CH2OH(CHOH)4CHO; by this we notice that it is an alde- 
hyde, while levulose with the formula (CH2OH>2(CHOH)3CO is a ketone. 
Laboratory Work—Glucose:—{l) Place about ig. dry grape sugar in a 
test tube and heat; note changes in condition, color and odor. Allow the 
test tube to cool and then add water and warm. Note the color of the 
liquid. 
The caramel obtained by the dry heat is a harmless coloring matter, 
much used to give a suitable color to vinegar, liquors, etc. 
(2) To about ig. dry glucose add an equal volume of concentrated 
sulfuric acid and allow to stand. Note the change in color at intervals 
for ten minutes while engaged in further tests. Heat the acid and sugar PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
4 
gradually; note the effects. The black color is due to humin substances 
Laevulinic acid (Cs H8 O3) is formed at the same time. 
(3) To about 2c.c.of a 2 per cent sugar solution, add an equal vol- 
ume of a strong Na OH solution and boil. Note the changes in color. The 
sugar undergoes oxidation in an alkaline solution. This is called the Moore- 
Heller test. When this reaction is applied as a test in urinalysis, a precipi- 
tate of earthly phosphates is formed and the brown color produced. 
(4) To about 2c.c. of a silver nitrate solution add ammonia, one drop 
at a time, until a precipitate forms and barely redissolves; add to this about 
2c.c. of the sugar solution and a few drops of NaOH and warm gently. A 
mirror of metallic silver forms on the inside of the tube. What kind of a 
process has been performed? Grape sugar will reduce a ferricyanid to ferro- 
cyanid, indigo blue to indigo white; will decolorize litmus, etc. 
(5) Trommer’s Test—Render the solution strongly alkaline with 
NaOH or KOFI, and boil, then add a few drops of copper sulfate solution 
and heat again—a reddish or yellowish precipitate of cuprous oxid is 
thrown down. When this test is tried with urine, Novy says that a white 
precipitate of uric acid and nuclein bases (alloxuric bodies) may form, If 
too much copper is added a black precipitate of cupric oxid will form. 
(6) Fehling’s Test—Boil some Fehling’s solution in a test tube, then 
add one half c. c. of the sugar solution (or suspected urine) and maintain 
the liquid for half a minute at the boiling point. If o. I per cent of sugar is 
present a yellow or red precipitate of cuprous oxid will appear If none 
appear at once add more solution to be tested. Some other constituents of 
urine may reduce this solution slightly. Very small amounts may fail of 
detection, as creatinin may prevent the precipitation of traces of cuprous 
oxid. It is necessary to keep the constituents of Fehling’s solution sepa- 
rate until just before using, when equal volumes ot the constituents are 
mixed to form the solution. 
(7) Haines’ Test.—Take about 4 c.c. of Haines’ solution, boil, add 6to 
8 drops of sugar solution; heat again and a precipitate of cuprous oxid 
will form. This solution is more stable than Fehling’s. Do not boil more 
than half a minute after the addition of the reagent. If no precipitate forms 
add a few drops more of the sugar solution. 
(8) To some Barfoed’s solution add grape sugar solution and boil, 
After standing, a small amount of red cuprous oxid is precipitated. The 
precipitate is not so abundant and does not appear so quickly as in alkaline 
solutions. This reaction is important because milk sugar, cane sugar, mal- 
tose and dextrin do not reduce it. Barfoed’s solution is prepared by dis- 
solving 1 part of copper acetate in 15 parts water. To 200 c.c. of this solu- 
tion add 5 c.c. of a 28 per cent solution of acetic acid. 
(9) Boettger’s Test.—To about 4 c.c. of the sugar solution, add an 
equal volume of NaOH solution, then introduce a very small amount of 
bismuth sub-nitrate, and boil from 2 to 3 minutes. A black precipitate, PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
5 
which late investigators prove to consist mainly of lower oxids of bismuth 
is formed. If reaction does not occur at once, let it stand ten minutes. Al- 
bumin will cause a dark precipitate of bismuth to form; hence, in making 
tests of urine containing albumin, the albumin must be first removed. 
(10) Nylander’s Test.—To 10 c.c. of the sugar solution add i c.c. of 
Nylander’s solution and boil 2to 3 minutes. Nylander’s solution is pre- 
pared by dissolving 10.33 g- NaOH in 100 c.c. of water; add 2g. bismuth 
sub-nitrate and 4g. Rochelle salts. Novy says that concentrated urines con- 
taining chrysophonic acid (C15H10O4) give a dark color, but that the test is 
more delicate than Fehling’s. 
(n) Molisch’s Test.—Add one half drop of a 15 per cent solution of 
alpha napthol (CIOH7OH) to one c.c. of sugar solution. Then add slowly, 
so that it will glide down the side of the inclined tube, about one c.c. of con- 
centrated sulfuric acid. The acid will remain at the bottom, if carefully 
introduced, and a layer of a reddish violet color will form on its surface. 
This reaction is due to the formation of furfurol (C4H3OCHO), and is given 
by other carbohydrates. If this test is given by urine diluted with five 
parts of water, carbohydrates are in excess. 
(12) The Phenylhydrazine Test.—On heating with a grape sugar solu- 
tion phenyl hydrazin hydrochlorid, it forms yellow crystals of definite 
melting point called glucosazone [CeHioOiCCeFEN-iH).)]. This reaction is 
used when doubt exists after the use of the simpler tests, or when the detec- 
tion of small amounts is a matter of importance. Each sugar yields charac- 
teristic crystals whose melting points determine which sugar is present. 
The melting point of phenyl glucosazone is 204-205° C., its crystals are nee- 
dle shaped, single, or in rosettes. Piirdy applies the test to urine as folloxvs: 
To 25 c.c. of suspected urine add ig. of phenyl hydrazin hydrochlorid, 
0.75g. sodium acetate, and 10 c.c. distilled water. Place in small beaker 
and warm over water bath for at least an hour; remove and allow to cool. 
The yellowish deposit will show the characteristic needle-like crystals if the 
least sugar be present. It gives no reaction with the other constituents of 
urine. 
(13) Fermentation Test.—Fill a test tube in which a small lump of 
yeast has been mixed with solution to be tested. Insert a stopper contain- 
ing an ordinary piece of glass tubing, bent into U shape. Invert the tube 
and place in a beaker. If the stopper is under water the escape of gas is 
prevented. Allow to stand in a warm place over night. The fermentation 
will form CO2 gas in the tube which is an approximate measure of the quan- 
tity of sugar. Cane sugar ferments less rapidly. If an equal quantity 
(100 c.c.) of urine is placed in each of two bottles with holes in the stoppers 
for the escape of gas, and a lump of yeast dropped into one, so that fermen- 
tation will occur in that one and not in the other; the loss in specific grav- 
ity after fermentation has ceased (in about 24 hours) will be a measure of 
the amount of sugar present. The degrees of density lost equal the grains 
of sugar per fluid ounce. This method was suggested by Roberts. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
6 
Levulose— CHi OH. CO. ( CHOH),CICOH. 
This sugar is a ketone and occurs in many fruits and in honey. It has 
been found in small quantities in blood, urine and muscle. When adminis- 
tered in diabetes a part is eliminated as such, while part is changed to gly- 
cogen or glucose. It is supposed to be less injurious in diabetes than other 
sugar. Levulose is prepared from heating cane sugar with mineral acids. 
This is called “inversion” because the levo-rotary power of levulose is so 
much greater than the dextro-rotary power of cane sugar, that after the pro- 
cess the mixture of dextrose and levulose is levo-rotary. It is also pre- 
pared by the first action of yeast on cane sugar, and like dextrose will form 
alcohol and carbon di-oxide if the fermentation is continued. It responds 
to all the tests given for dextrose, but may be distinguished by its action on 
light and may be separated from dextrose by forming an insoluble com- 
pound with calcium hydroxid, while the dextrose is soluble. It forms a 
glucosazone identical with that of dextrose. 
Galactose—( C^HviOd). 
When milk sugar (lactose) is boiled with dilute mineral acids, dextrose 
and galactose are formed. It is identical with “cerebrose” which Thudic- 
hum prepared by boiling certain substances obtained from the brain, with 
dilute mineral acids. If may be separated from dextrose by its greater 
solubility in absolute alcohol, and it possesses greater specific dextro- 
rotary power. It ferments with yeast, but not so rapidly as dex- 
trose, It reduces Fehling’s solution. Its osazone melts at 1930. On ox- 
idation with nitric acid it yields mucic acid (CeHioOs), while dextrose yields 
saccharic acid, an isomer of mucic acid. Saccharic acid is very soluble in 
water, mucic slightly so. 
Mannite—(CsHuOd).—This is regarded by some as a carbohydrate, but 
is generally considered as an alcohol. 
Inosite—( C§HviO§) .—This has a sweet taste and is crystallizable, but is 
regarded by very good authorities as a derivative of the benzene series, hav- 
ing the structural formula (CHOH)e. It does not reduce Fehling’s solution,, 
has no rotary action on light and does not form osazones. It is found in 
muscle, especially in heart muscle, and in lung tissue. It has also been 
found in kidneys, spleen, liver and brain. It occurs in urine in diabetes 
and in Bright’s disease. In the vegetable kingdom it is quite abundant in 
unripe beans. 
Disaccharids or Saccharoses. 
Cane Sugar, Sucrose,—(CnH-nOw). 
This sugar is not found in animal tissue, but it is such an important food 
that it is of interest to the student of physiology. Its most interesting re* 
action is that by which it breaks up into dextrose and levulose, either when 
heated with dilute mineral acids, or under the influence of invertin which is 
present in yeast. Its solution is strongly dextro-rotary. It crystalizes in 
mono-clinic crystals which melt at 1600 and if heated farther yields caramel. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
7 
It does not form an osazone because it is inverted in the process and the 
glucosozone is formed. With sour milk, cane sugar readily undergoes lace 
tic acid fermentation. If injected into the blood it is eliminated, unchang-d, 
by the kidneys; it is therefore not assimilable. When taken as food into 
the alimentary tract it is not eliminated unchanged; it must therefore be in- 
verted by the action of enzymes. This inversion begins in the stomach. 
Maltose—( Ci 2Hn On+H> 0). 
The action of a ferment, called diastase, on starch produces first dextrin 
and then maltose. This ferment is found in barley and other grains. Maltose 
is also formed by the action of ferments in the saliva and pancreatic secretion. 
Dilute sulfuric acid heated with starch paste yields maltose as an inter- 
mediate product. By prolonged boiling with water, or by less boiling with 
dilute mineral acids, it is converted inio dextrose. It forms a characteristic 
osazone with phenyl hydrazin soluble in 75 parts of boiling water. It 
melts at 2o6°C. Maltose, when injected into the blood, is eliminated al- 
most entirely unchanged; it is therefore not to any degree assimilable. It 
is formed, with a small amount of dextrose, by pancreatic digestion of 
starch, but has been found by experiment to be readily converted into dex- 
trose when allowed to stand with an infusion either of intestinal lining or 
tissue; hence it is supposed that it is converted into dextrose during ab- 
sorption. 
Iso maltose. 
This is an isomer of maltose formed by fermentation of starch. It is 
more difficulty fermentable than maltose, but by action of diastase yields 
maltose. It yields an osozone with different melting point (1530) from 
maltosazone. 
Laboratory Work.—Maltose. 
Make a starch paste by stirring 1 g. starch into 100 c. c. boiling water. 
Cool to 6o°, add I g. powdered malt and keep at 6o° for an hour. At in- 
tervals of 10 minutes test y2 c. c. of solution with iodine solution and note 
the results for comparison with action of saliva on starch. At the end of an 
hour boil and filter. Save the filtrate for tests to compare with sucrose, 
lactose, and dextose. 
Lactose—{CnHnOw-L HiO). 
Lactose is contained in considerable quantities in milk. It is occasion- 
ally found in the urine of women in the early days of lactation or after 
weaning. It is crystallizable, dextro-rotary and less soluble in water than 
other sugars. It is less sweet than dextrose and its reducing power is 7:10 
when compared with that of dextrose. Upon heating with acids it forms 
dextrose and galactose. If the heating be long continued it will yield 
laevulinic and formic acids and humin. Upon oxidation with nitric acid, it 
is first inverted and then the dextrose forms saccharic acid, while galactose 
forms mucic acid. Bacteria readily cause a fermentation which yields 
lactic acid (GZ/eCb). It does not ferment with yeast and does not reduce PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
8 
Barfoed’s reagent. In the latter respect it is like maltose The lactosa- 
zone crystals melt at 200°. 
Laboratory Work.—Sugars. Try with sucrose, lactose and the prepared 
maltose solutions tests sto 11, inclusive, as given under glucose. Note the 
results together with those for same tests with glucose, in the following 
table: 
Glucose. 
Sucrose. 
Maltose. 
Lactose. 
ft—Lphlmp’s 
8—Ra rf opH’s 
q—Roettfypr’s 
in—Nylanrlpr’s 
I i—Molisch’s 
Try the fermentation test with glucose, sucrose and maltose. 
Boil 50 c. c. of cane sugar solution with 6 to 8 drops concentrated HCI 
for 2or 3 minutes. Render alkaline with NaOH and test b}' 5, 7, 8, 9 and 
10. Compare these tests with those made before boiling sucrose with an 
acid and explain. 
POL YSACCHARIDS- 
Starch—(G//ioOf,)n —Starch is one of the important foods derived from 
the vegetable kingdom. In many plants it is often stored in roots, bulbs 
and tubers; in others it forms a large part of the seed, and in still others 
the stem of the plant contains a deposit of starch granules. A thin slice of 
a potato will reveal in the cells of the tissue finely striated starch grains, 
which furnish to this tuber its chief value as a food. Starch grains vary in 
size and shape, but consist of a material which is sometimes called cellu- 
lose, and another portion called granulose. The cellulose differs from that 
in the walls of the ordinary plant cell, however, as it dissolves in reagents 
in which ordinary cellulose does not. The granulose and cellulose are ar- 
ranged in alternate layers. The granulose has the greatest food value. 
Starch is insoluble in cold water. It forms a pasty, opalescent mass in 
boiling water, which is not really a solution, though it may, when diluted, 
have the appearance of one. The boiling water causes the granules to 
swell up and burst the envelopes of cellulose, allowing the granulose to es- 
cape, which forms the principal part of starch paste. The most character- 
istic reaction of starch is the blue color formed with iodin solution after 
having been placed in boiling water. When dry starch is heated to 1500- 
170° it changes into dextrin. This change is accompanied by a change 
from white to yellow. This product will form with water a mucilaginous 
material much used as an adhesive. 
Under the influence of diastase, pancreatic juice, or saliva, starch paste 
is converted successively into amylodextrin (soluble starch), erythrodex- 
trin, achroodextrin, maltodextrin, isomaltose and maltose. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
9 
When starch is boiled with dilute sulfuric or hydrochloric acid it 
passes rapidly through the above changes, but yields, finally, dextrose. 
In the body of animals the starch is known to produce fatty tissue. 
Certain bacteria acting on starch may give rise to fatty acids. 
Malt diastase by action on starch produces no dextrose; the pancreatic 
juice yields but little, and it is still a disputed question whether the saliva 
produces any dextrose. The chemical formula for starch has not been def- 
initely determined, but it is known to be some multiple of the group 
CeHioOs. By an application of Raoult’s method the formula for soluble 
starch is determined as 5(Ci2H200i0)20. 
Laboratory Work.—Starch.—l. Place a very little starch in cold water 
and take a drop containing some of the starch granules for microscopic ex- 
amination. Note the shape and markings of starch granules from several 
different sources. Allow a drop of iodin solution to flow gently under the 
cover glass; note the color which is thus produced. 
2. Moisten a very small amount of starch with two or three drops of 
water, then pour 10 c.c. boiling water upon it, mix thoroughly and continue 
heating a moment. To some of the resulting starch paste add a few drops 
of an iodin solution. The deep blue color is caused by a peculiar effect of 
iodin on starch. If it is a compound, its composition is not yet known. It 
is a convenient test for starch. 
3. Try to dissolve a small amount of starch in about 10 c.c. of cold 
water. Filter, boil filtrate and test with iodin solution; will starch dis- 
solve in cold water ? 
4- Boil one or two c.c. of a soluble starch solution with Fehling’s solu- 
tion. Note that it does not reduce the solution. 
5. Boil about one gram of starch in 100 c.c. of water in a small beaker, 
add 3 or 4 c.c. of dilute H2SO4, cover with a watch glass and boil gently. 
Test a small portion with iodin and with Fehling’s solution at intervals. 
Notice that when erythrodextrin is formed it gives a red color with iodin; 
that achroodextrin, maltodextrin, isomaltose, maltose and dextrose give 
no color with iodin; observe also that as erythro-dextrin forms, Fehling’s 
solution is reduced, and the reducing power increases with the boiling until 
dextrose results. Barfoed’s reagent may be used to distinguish the point at 
which maltose is formed and changed into dextrose, as the latter reduces 
this reagent, while the former does not. 
6. Place one gram of starch in a flask having a capacity of 200 or 300 
c.c., add 5 c.c. of strong nitric acid and heat gently under the ventilating 
hood. When a reaction begins, remove the heat until it has ceased; .then 
evaporate to a small volume and crystals of oxalic acid will appear in the 
residue upon cooling. 
7. To some starch paste add tannic acid; a precipitate is formed, or 
opacity produced. 
The Dextrins—(CaHwOh)n—As stated above, several compounds bear- PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY 
10 
ing the name of dextrin are formed by the hydrolysis of starch. They are 
distinguished by differences in solubility, in rotary power, and in reactions 
with iodin and other reagents. 
Dextrin may be prepared by heating starch to 150° or 1600 for a con- 
siderable time, or by heating with dilute acids. In digestion it is formed by 
the action of saliva and by pancreatic juice. It is probably all transformed 
into dextrose before entering the blood, though in experiments outside the 
body some dextrin will be unchanged however long the process be contin- 
ued. Dextrin is not fermented by yeast, but after it is hydrated to maltose 
the fermentation will occur. 
Laboratory Work.— I. Heat about sg. of starch to about 155o—just0—just 
below the point at which it scorches. Stir well and continue heating for 
ten minutes after the starch is uniformly yellowish brown. Cool, add water, 
boil and filter. 
2. To the filtrate obtained above add tannic acid, no precipitate is 
is formed, compare with action of soluble starch. 
3. To some of the solution add iodin, explain the results by compar- 
ing with experiment 5 under starch. 
4. To about 4 c.c. Fehling’s solution add one c.c. of the solution and 
boil. Ordinary dextrin reduces Fehling’s solution. 
Glycogen—(GHio05)n.—Glycogen is in many respects similar to starch, 
especially in its hydrolytic changes. It is sometimes called animal starch. 
Its exact chemical formula is not known,“n” being supposed by some to be 
6, by others 10. It was first found in the liver, but was afterwards extracted 
from muscle and other tissue. It is also found in oysters and some plants. 
Glycogen is formed in the liver and distributed from that organ to the 
blood either as glycogen or as glucose. It is still a debated question in 
which form it passes into the circulation. The amount in the liver at any 
time depends upon the kind and quantity of food. Ordinarily the liver con- 
tains from 1 to 4 per cent but may contain 12 to 16 per cent after a hearty 
meal of carbohydrates. Work or starvation causes the glycogen to disap- 
pear from the muscle of which it is about 0.6 per cent. After death it rap- 
idly changes into dextrose by fermentation, which fact makes the estimat- 
ing of its exact amount a difficult process-. Some suppose the change from 
glycogen to dextrose due to a ferment; others, to specific metabolic power 
of the liver cells. 
Glycosuria—diabetes—is due to a disturbed metabolism in the liver 
causing excretion of glucose in the urine. That which glycogen yields being 
ordinarily consumed in the body, is in this disease excreted unused. The 
causes of such a disturbance maybe varied—an injury at or near the base of 
the brain, an injury to the pancreas, nervous exhaustion, or an injury to the 
spine. 
There are ferments found in malt, in the saliva, pancreas, and perhaps 
in the liver or blood which cause glycogen to pass through the same stages PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMSTRY. 
which starch passes through in hydrolysis, and dextrose results. Some have 
supposed that the dextrose found in the blood after death results from a 
post mortem fermentation of glycogen. The diastasic action of ferments 
is most marked in neutral or slightly acid condition. Glycogen is not af- 
fected by yeast. An acid solution of CO2 hinders the fermentation of gly- 
cogen. 
Glycogen is a white, amorphous powder which dissolves freely in wa- 
ter and forms usually an opalescent liquid. It is readily precipitated by al- 
cohol when pure, but not from very dilute solutions. A trace of sodium 
chlorid will cause its precipitation. It gives a red color with iodin as ery- 
throdextrin does, which disappears on warming and reappears on cooling. 
The dextrins are, however, less readily precipitated by alcohol, requiring at 
least 85 per cent alcohol, whereas 60 per cent alcohol will precipitate gly- 
cogen. It yields precipitates also with tannic acid, barium hydrate and 
basic lead acetate. 
Cellulose is the principal constituent of cell walls in plants. It under 
goes changes similar to those of starch when heated with mineral acids, 
but less readily. Materials composed of nearly pure cellulose are cotton 
fiber and Swedish filter paper. The digestive fluids have little action on 
cellulose, hence the necessity ot boiling starchy foods. The boiling breaks 
up the envelopes of cellulose allowing the escape of the digestible contents. 
Cellulose is found in few animals as in the outer covering of the Tunicates. 
Cellulose {C^HwO^n. 
Under the action of nitric acid, nitro-celluloses are formed. Among 
these are collodion and gun cotton. 
FATS. 
Fat as it exists in animal bodies is a combination of an acid group 
with a glycerol radical. Of these acids, palmitic (CISH3ICOOH), stearic 
(CI7H3SCOOH), and obic (CI7H33COOH), are the most common. Olein 
C17H33C00) 3C3H5), stearin and palmitin (Ci.sFFiCOOjs 
C3HO, are found in human fat. It will be remembered that by the addi- 
tion of water under high heat, the fats may be decomposed into gly- 
cerol and fatty acids. 
{CuHnCOO)sCsH6+,■3H*O=3Ci,HAICOOR+ C,H, (OH),. 
The reaction of superheated steam on the other fats is analagous to this 
one. It is not an easy matter to unite fatty acids and glycerol to form fat, 
but it has been done in laboratory experiments. A decomposition similar 
to that by superheated steam may be made by mineral acids, and in the 
body by steapsin, the fat-splitting ferment of the pancreatic juice. Sapon- 
ification of fat also occurs in the small intestines. This process is illus- 
trated in making soap. The reaction with a strong base may be as fol- 
lows : PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
12 
{CnHsr,Cooh CaH6+3KOH=3CnH3S COOK+C,H, {OH},. 
Emulsification is a division into minute particles distributed through 
the medium in which they are suspended. The pancreatic juice possesses 
the property of emulsifying fats. The origin of fat in the human body is a 
question of great interest. In is now believed that fat results not only 
from fatty food but from siarch, sugars and even proteids. Experiments 
with animals lead to this conclusion. 
Adipocere is a waxy substance consisting of fatty acids and their salts, 
formed in cadavers buried long in damp earth. The formation of adipocere 
from proteid matter shows the possibility of fatty acids from such proteids. 
Lecithin (C44PEONPO9), is a complex fat found in red blood corpuscles, bile, 
serous fluids, semen, pus, white blood corpuscles, and is more abundant in 
brain and nerves. It is prepared from the yolk of egg for laboratory ex- 
periments but its preparation is, complicated. Upon decomposition it yields 
glycerol, stearic acid, and an alkaloid called “cholin”—CsHlsNO2. 
Laboratory Work.—Fat. 
1.—Test the solubility of bits of tallow in ether, benzine and alcohol. 
Use small amounts of the liquid and ascertain which has the least solvent 
power on fat. Test the reaction of the alcoholic solution by litmus, or al- 
coholic solution of rosolic acid. 
2.—To a small amount of fat crushed into pulp and 5 c. c. of a mixture 
of equal parts of alcohol and etner; warm gently, avoid heating sufficiently 
to set the vapor on fire; Put a drop of the clear liquid on a glass slide, 
cover with a cover glass and allow to stand. Examine after a short time 
with a microscope for fat crystals. 
3.—Cut up about 10 g. of pork fat or beef suet into as small pieces as 
possible. Pleat in an evaporating dish at 120° to 130°, stirring constantly. 
Maintain this temperature for about ten minutes. Strain through a piece 
of muslin, pressing out the fluid fat. The residue is connective tissue and 
some fat the latter may be extracted by ether and alcohol. 
4. —Place a small quantity of the fluid fat on a piece of filter paper and 
note its transparency. Try to explain the cause of the transparency. 
5. —Rub up thoroughly in a mortar a piece of fat with KHSO4. Trans- 
fer to a dry test tube and heat cautiously until a peculiar irritating odor is 
noticeable. This is due to acrolein, When the formula of glycerol and 
acrolein are written together for comparison it is easy to understand the 
source of the acrolein. 
Glycerol, CH2O‘H. CHOH. CH2OH. 
6.—Mix sc.c. of a saturated solution of carbonate of sodium with an 
equal volume of water; add a small amount of fat obtained in experiment 3> 
warm and shake thoroughly. The liquid becomes milky but upon standing 
the fat accumulates at the top. It is not emulsified, saponified or dissolved. 
Acrolein, CPU CH. COH. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
13 
7.—Melt the remaining fat and transfer it to a small Erlenmeyer flask. 
Add 35 c. c. alcohol and 3g. of KOH. Insert a stopper with a condensing 
tube 18 to 24 inches long and heat over a water bath for half an hour. Pour 
a little of the solution into water; if it remains clear, the saponification is 
complete. If not complete, continue heating until it is. Write the reac- 
tion for the saponification of stearin in this experiment. Preserve the soap 
solution for following experiments. 
8.—Pour about half of the soap solution made in experiment 7 into 
warm, 3 per cent sulfuric acid. The fatty acids are set free and rise to the 
surface. Write the reaction. Heat on water bath until the liquid below 
the fatty acids is clear. Filter through a filter previously moistened with 
hot water. What is in the filtrate? What three fatty acids are retained by 
the filter? Wash the residue with hot water. Preserve the filtrate without 
the washings. 
9-—Dissolve a small portion of the fatty acids in a little alcohol and test 
with rosolic acid and litmus. What is the reaction ? Why do fats become 
rancid on standing? 
10. With a porton of the fatty acids try the test given under experi- 
ment 5. Explain your results. 
11.—Repeat experiment 6 using fatty acids instead of fat. What is 
formed ,J Warm and add a few drops of olive oil and shake. Is the emul- 
sion permanent? What is now present that was not in experiment 6? Ex- 
amine a drop of the emulsion under the microscope. What constituents of 
the pancreatic juice would produce a similar condition? 
12.—To one portion of the warm soap solution add calcium chlorid 
solution. Explain the results. 
13. The filtrate of experiment 8 may be concentrated and purified by 
alcohol and ether and again evaporated to show the presence of glycerol. 
But a quicker way is to mix 50 c.c. cottonseed oil with 25g. litharge in 100 
c.c. water in a porcelain dish and heat with constant stirring until the oil 
globules have disappeared. When saponification is complete add more hot 
water, stir well, then allow to settle and filter. Concentrate the mixed fil- 
trates nearly to dryness. Taste the syrupy residue. 
14. Mix a little borax with the residue and test it by platinum wire in 
the flame. Explain the green tinge to the flame. 
PROTEIDS. 
The proteids occur in all living organisms and seem to be necessary to 
to the existence of even the simplest forms of life. It is impossible to know 
whether the same substances exist in the living animal as those obtained 
from its dead tissues; but some form of proteids may be obtained from 
everybody that has possessed life. Their exact formula has never been de- PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
14 
termined as their percentage composition seems to vary somewhat. Lieber- 
kuhn suggests CraHmSNieOa as approximate. The percentages according 
to two distinguished chemists are as follows: 
Hoppe-Seyler. Drechsel. 
c- 51.5 54.5 50.0 55-0 
H. 6.9 7.3 6.8 7-3 
N. 15.2 17.0 15.4 1%-2 
S. 0.3 2.0 0.4 5.0 
O. 20.9 23.5 22.8 24.1 
The different members differ in solubility, consistency and various 
physical and chemical characters. There are, however, many reactions in 
common as well as a very similar percentage composition. 
Upon decomposition so many different substances are obtained that 
the molecule must be very complex, but no definite structure can be ascer- 
tained. The decompositions in the body are so different from those in the 
laboratory that it has led to the belief that the constitution of living proto- 
plasm is different from that obtained after death. According to Hallibur- 
ton’s Kirke the chief final decomposition products of proteids are carbon 
di-oxid, water and urea. Glycocin, leucin, creatin and uric acid are prob- 
ably intermediate products. Carbohydrates and fats may be formed in the 
body from proteids. Outside of the body they may be broken up into am- 
monia, carbon di-oxid, amins, fatty acids, amido acids (like leucin), lysatin, 
glycosin and aromatic compounds like tyrosin. The student will determine 
their solubilities in alcohol, ether, water, various salt solutions, and acids. 
Most proteids coagulate when heated, though at different degrees. 
Proteids (peptones excepted) will not pass readily through animal mem- 
branes. The processes of digestion transform them so that they are capa- 
ble of absorption. Bodies which will not pass through animal membranes 
are called colloids. 
Classjficasion of Proteids. 
The following classification is that of Hoppe-Seyler: 
I. Native Albumins. Egg-albumin, Serum-albumin. 
11. Derived Albumins. 1. Acid-albumin; 2. Syntonin; 3. Alkali- 
Casein or Native Alkali-albumin. 
HI. Globulins. 1. Crystallin, the globulin of the crystalline lens; 2. 
Vitellin. 3. Paraglobulin, or Serum-globulin; 4. Fibrinogen; 5. Myosin; 
6. Globin. 
IV. Fibrins. 
V. Coagulated Proteids. 
VI. Albumoses and Peptones. 
VII. Lardacein, or Amyloid Substances. 
Class I. Native Albumins 
£gg Albumin and Serum Albumin are examples. They are soluble in PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
distilled water, coagulate upon heating, especially in the presence of dilute 
acetic acid. They are not precipitated by carbonates of alkalis, by sodium 
chlorid, or generally by neutral salts. 
Serum Albumin differs from Egg Albumin in several respects. 
i. It is not so readily coagulated by alcohol or precipitated by ether as 
egg albumin is. 
2. It is not readily precipitated by strong hydrochloric acid and the 
precipitate is readily soluble in excess of HCT, the reverse is true of egg 
albumin. 
3. Precipitated or coagulated serum albumin is more readily dissolved 
in nitric acid than is egg albumin. 
4. Egg albumin, if injected subcutaneously, or into a vein, reappears 
unaltered in the urine; serum albumin will not normally be excreted in the 
urine, if injected into the blood. 
Cut or beat up the white of an egg until the fibers are broken; divide 
into four parts. To the first part add four parts water; to the second part 
add nine parts water; to the third part add forty-nine parts water; preserve 
the fourth part undiluted. The diluted portions should each be mixed well 
with the water added and then filtered. 
Laboratory Work—Egg Albumin and General Proteid Reactions. 
I-—Place 1 c. c. of the undiluted white of egg in a test tube; heat water 
in a water bath and stir it with the test tube containing the egg albumin and 
a thermometer whose bulb is immersed in the albumin. Note the tempera- 
ture at which it coagulates. 
2.—Mark three test tubes with numbers 1, 2, and 3 respectively. In 
number I place 5 c. c. 1-5 albumin solution; in number 2 place 1-10 albumin 
solution; in number 3 place 1-50 albumin solution. Immerse the three 
three tubes in boiling water in a water bath for five or ten minutes; observe 
the results. They become opalescent, but do not coagulate. How does di- 
lution affect coagulation of egg albumin? Preserve the tubes and contents 
for comparison with the next experiment. 
3.—Mark 3 more tubes with numbers 2, 3, 3a, respectively. In number 
2 put 5 c. c. I-IO albumin solution and 1 c. c. of 10 per cent salt solution; 
in number 3 put 5 c. c. of 1-50 albumin solution and 1 c. c. of 10 per cent 
salt solution; into 3a put 5 c. c. of 1-50 albumin solution and o. 2 c. c. of 10 
per cent salt solution. Immerse in boiling water for five minutes. Com- 
pare tubes 2 and 3 with tubes 2 and 3of previous experiment. The coagu- 
lation will probably be noticeable, while in tube 3a the opalesence will be 
greater than in tube 3of the previous experiment. Now to the three tubes 
containing the salt and albumin add one or two drops of 1 per cent acetic 
acid and heat again. A complete precipitation in all three tubes results. 
What conclusion may be drawn from a comparison of these experiments 
with the preceding? 
4. In each of two tubes place 5 c. c. of 1-50 albumin solution. To one PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
16 
add one drop of I per cent acetic acid; to 2 add five drops I per cent acetic 
acid. Immerse in water bath 5 minutes. In number 1 the albumin is com- 
pletely precipitated; in number 2 it has been changed to acid albuminate 
(Class II.), and dissolved. Now, to each day add 1 c. c. of 10 per cent 
NaCl solution and heat again. Complete precipitation results. What con- 
clusion may be drawn? 
5.—To 1 c. c. of 1-5 egg albumin solution add several times the amount 
of alcohol and shake vigorously. The alcohol causes coagulation. Try a 
more dilute solution (1-50), and after adding alcohol, observe; then add 
5 c. c. 10 per cent salt solution. 
6.—To about 3c. c. of egg albumin solution (1-50), add an equal vol- 
ume of concentrated nitric acid. Let the acid glide gently down the side 
of the test tube so that the acid will settle to the bottom without mixing. 
At the surface of the acid a cloudy ring of precipitated albumin will be 
formed, (Heller’s test). Now mix the liquids and warm gently; a precipi- 
tate remains. Boil the mixture for a short time and the albumin will dis- 
solve forming a yellow liquid containing acid albumin. Add 2c. c. of 
ammonia and an orange color will appear. This is called the “Xanthopro- 
teic 1 eaction. • Serum albumin will not dissolve so readily in excess when 
precipitated by nitric acid, hence a combination of the Heller test and sub- 
sequent heating, is a valuable test for albumin in urine. 
7-—Saturate 10 c. c. of dilute albumin solution with SO4. This 
may be done by heating at 350 in a water bath for half an hour with suffi- 
cient (NHi)2 SO4 added. Test filtrate by acetic acid and heat. Is albumin 
completely precipitated? 
8.—Saturate 10 c. c. of dilute albumin solution with MgSCb, using I2g. 
and the same method as in experiment 7, Only a slight cloud forms, due 
to the globulin. Test the filtrate as above. How may albumin be separated 
from globulin? 
Alkaloidal Tests. 
g.—To about 5 c. c. albumin solution add one or two drops strong acetic 
acid then add two or three drops of potassium ferrocyanid. A precipitate 
forms. If much potassium ferrocyanid is used the liquid imparts a yellow- 
ish color to the precipitate which is otherwise white. This test is not given 
by peptones. 
10.—To 5 c. c. albumin solution 1-50, add a few drops of strong HCI and 
then a few drops of phosphotungstic acid (H3PO4 11W03). This is given by 
all proteids. Phosphomolybdic acid (H3 PO4 IIMO3) acts in the same man- 
ner.- 
n Jo sc. c. albumin solution, 1-50, add a few drops of strong HCI 
and then add a few drops of potassium mercuric iodid. (Formula next to 
last page.) 
I 2 Add a few drops of tannic acid to sc. c. dilute albumin solution. 
Recall action of tannic acid on starch and dextrin. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
17 
tion. 
13.—Add a few drops of picric acid to a portion of dilute albumin solu- 
Tests With Heavy Metals. 
14.—To a portion of dilute albumin solution add 8 or 10 drops of a so- 
lution of silver nitrate; to another an equal amount of lead acetate; and to 
another an equal amount of mercuric chlorid. Why is white of egg an 
antidote for corrosive sublimate poisoning? Why should a stomach pump 
be used after the administration of white of egg? 
Color Reactions. 
15.— Millon’s Reaction.—To some 1-50 albumin solution add a few 
drops of Millon’s reagent, and boil. The white precipitate formed at first 
turns red by boiling. 
(15)—Liquid also becomes red. Reaction caused by phenol group- 
Formula for millions reagent on the last page. 
16.—Biuret Test.—-To 8 c. c. 1-50 albumin solution add equal volume of 
NaOH solution. Then heat to boiling and add one to two drops of copper 
sulfate solution. A pink or violet color appears. Avoid excess of CuSCh. 
This reaction may indicate that proteids contain the biuret group. 
Or it may indicate a diamid group as this group will also give the biu- 
ret reaction. If a diamid group is removed from the proteids it will not 
give the biuret reaction. The relation of the biuret group to urea may be 
shown by the following reaction. 
COS . ro NH, 
(2 mols. urea) ,nr’ minus NH3 = (Biuret group) rn NH 
CO NH, 
17.—Adamkiewiczs’ Reaction.—To 1 c. c. of H,SC>4 add 2 c. c. of 
glacial acetic acid and mix. To the mixture add 1 drop dilute egg albumin. 
Warm gently, allow to stand; a reddish violet color appears. Reaction 
shows presence of aromatic group. 
As the tests are tried with various kinds of proteids indicate by a -[— 
or sign in the following table, whether a precipitate is obtained. If any 
peculiarities, indicate on the blank page opposite. 
Laboratory Work—Serum Albumin. 
A quantity of blood collected at the slaughter house should be whipped 
with a bundle of twigs or an egg beater, until the fibrin is removed. The 
corpuscles should be allowed to settle, or be separated in the centrifuge, 
and the clear serum used to separate albumin and globulin from. The first 
two experiments may be tried simultaneously. 
1. Take 10 c.c. of serum, add an equal volume of solution of MgSCh; 
also Isg. powdered MgSCb; continue stirrring and heat 30 minutes at a tem- 
perature between 30° and 350. This will saturate the entire fluid and pre- 
cipitate the globulin. Filter and save filtrate to test for serum albumin by 
tests in above table. If MgSCh is present, it will interfere with test No. 14 
in the table. Why? When sodium hydroxid is added to make biuret test, PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY 
18 
will excess of alkali dissolve the MgOH formed? After washing the glob- 
ulin on the filter with MgSCb solution, remove the precipitate and dissolve 
in 20 c. c. water and perserve with proper label. Globulin will not dissolve 
in water, ordinarily, but does in this case because of neutral salts present. 
2. Globulin is precipitated from a mixture with albumin by semi-sat- 
urating with To io c. c. of blood serum add io c. c. saturated 
ammonium sulfate solution. Immerse in water bath at 30° to 350, stir- 
ring frequently, for 30 minutes or longer. Filter and save filtrate to test 
serum albumin according to table at close of section on native albumins. 
The residue should be washed with semi-saturated solution of ammonium 
sulfate. After washing, dissolve the residue in 20 c. c. of water as the 
amount of ammoniun sulfate is sufficient to cause its solution in that quan- 
tity of water. This filtrate containing globulin can be placed in a dialyzer 
with that obtained in the last experiment and preserved for experiments on 
globulin. 
3. To 10 c. c. of blood serum add an equal volume of saturated solu- 
tion of Then add Bg. of and warm at 350 or 40° 
for half an hour. This saturates the solution and causes a precipitate. Fil- 
ter and test filtrate by boiling, by tannic acid, and by biuret test in the cold. 
The absence of proteids indicates complete precipitation of albumin and 
globulin; and the negative results from biuret test show absence of pep- 
tone. 
Class 11. Derived Albumins. 
Derived albumins are nearly insoluble in pure water or dilute saline so- 
lutions. They are soluble in acids and alkalies. They do not coagulate by 
boiling. 
To 5 c. c. of egg albumin in a small beaker add a strong solution of 
sodium hydroxid until a thick jelly forms. Avoid an excess of alkali. 
Cut in pieces the jelly-like material and wash with cold, distilled water. 
Heat some of the pieces gently in distilled water until dissolved. Filter and 
precipitate from filtrate with very little acetic acid and wash with pure water. 
Test solubility in dilute acids and alkalis. 
Laboratoiy Work—Derived Albumin. 
2. Take some of the washed alkali albumin obtained in experiment 1 
and dissolve in hot water; add an indicator, as phenol phthalein solution, a 
few drops, and exactly neutralize with sulphuric acid. When the neutral 
point is reached a precipitate is formed, which dissolves in either excess of 
acid or alkali. 
The jelly formed in experiment I contains excess of alkali and is called 
“Lieberkuehn’s jelly.” Why does this alkali albumin dissolve in water in 
view of the statement made previously that it is insoluble in water. 
Acid Albumin. 
Acid albumin is less soluble than alkali albumin and seems to have a PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMSTRY, 
19 
different rotary effect on polarized light. It may be prepared by warming 
the white of egg with dilute acid solution. 
1. To 25 c. c. of a mixture of one part white of egg and four parts wa- 
ter add sc.c. of 0.2 per cent hydrochloric acid and warm at 450 for about 
two hours. Carefully neutralize with dilute sodium hydroxid. If exactly 
neutral, acid albumin is precipitated, which may be washed by decantation. 
2. Redissolve a portion in dilute HCI. Observe that it is not coagu- 
lated by boiling. 
3. Mix a portion in water and heat to 750 or Bo°. The precipitate is 
changed to coagulum. 
4. Try Millon’s test, the biuret test, and the xanthoproteic reaction, 
with portions of the acid albumin. 
Pure casein is a white powder almost insoluble in water, but soluble in 
alkalis and acids. From such solutions it may be precipitated by excess of 
neutral salts and in dilute acids. If acids be added in excess, it dissolves. 
Solutions of pure casein are not coagulated by boiling. Casein contains a 
nearly constant proportion of phosphorus and is therefore classified by 
Hammarsten as a nucleo-proteid. Casein clots with rennin forming a com- 
pound different from the casein. Clotting will not occur in the absence of 
all calcium salts, unless magnesium, barium, or strontium salts are substi- 
tuted. It has been supposed that casein was identical with alkali albumin, 
but the evidence is against such a supposition. Pure rennin will not coag- 
ulate alkali-albumin. Pure casein yields no ash on ignition. It has been 
supposed that casein is derived from an antecedent called caseinogen. 
Casein. 
1. To 50 c. c. of water add 10 c. c. of milk and mix. Add enough 
acetic acid to give a distinctly acid reaction, avoid excess. Allow to settle 
and wash by decantation. Filter, drain and squeeze dry, and wash with 10 
c. c. of alcohol. Pour off the alcohol, add 25 c. c. of ether, place in small 
flask and after inserting condensing tube heat for ten minutes to boiling, on 
a water bath. The fat is dissolved by this treatment and may be obtained 
from the alcohol and ether filtrates by evaporating on a water bath which 
has been heated to boiling and the flame extinguished. 
11. Test solubilities of casein in alkalis, in acids and in distilled water. 
In what respects is it similar in these tests to alkali and acid-albumin? 
111. Mix 10 c.c. of milk with sg. of powdered MgSCb and shake vigor- 
ously. Let stand one hour. Casein is precipitated. Boil the filtrate and 
notice the coagulation of albumin. Milk contains albumin and globulin 
which are similar to those in blood, if not identical. They are sometimes 
called lactoglobulin and lactalbumin. 
Syntonin.—This substance is an acid albumin derived from the action 
of dilute acid on myosin. It is, however, so different from the acid-albumins 
obtained from other sources that it deserves separate consideration. It is 
insoluble in di-sodic phosphate; other acid-albumins are soluble. It may 
be reconverted into globulin similar to myosin. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
20 
Laboratory Work—Syntonin. I. Take some of the muscular part of 
meat freed from fat and ground fine in a sausage mill, and wash with water 
until the washings remain clear. To sg. of the moist residue in a small 
flask, add 50 c.c. of 0.1 per cent HCI. Warm to between 350 and 40° and 
keep at that temperature about three hours. Filter, and in the filtrate will 
be syntonin. 
2. Neutralize a portion by alkali (NaOH), syntonin is precipitated. 
An excess of alkali dissolves as in other albumins. 
Class 111. Globulins. 
The globulins, like the derived albumins, are not soluble in distilled 
water. They are, however, soluble in water containing small quantities of 
neutral salts, but most of them are insoluble in excess of these salts. They 
are soluble in dilute acids and alkalis, forming acid aud alkali albumins, 
respectively. Like the native albumins, they coagulate with heat and are 
precipitated by alcohol. 
Grysiallin. This one of the globulins occurs in the crystalline lens of 
which it constitutes nearly 25 per cent. It may be prepared by treating the 
finely divided portions of crystalline lenses with a salt solution, whicti dis- 
solves it. It may be precipitated from the salt solution by diluting with 
distilled water and saturating with carbonic anhydrid. 
Vitellin. The characteristic proteid constituent of egg yolk is vitellin. 
It may be obtained mixed with lecithin by the extraction of the yolk of 
eggs with ether. When so obtained it is a white, pasty, granular mass, in- 
soluble in water and readily soluble in solution of sodium chlorid. Excess 
of sodium chlorid fails to precipitate vitellin as it does other globulins. 
It is soluble in sodium carbonate (1 per cent) solutions and is precipitated 
by diluting and passing CO2 gas through the mixture. It is associated 
with nuclein and is regarded by some as a nucleo-proteid. 
Blood serum or lymph contains paraglobulin. It is now supposed to 
constitute one half of the serum proteids. It is insoluble in pure water, 
but is dissolved by the addition of even a small amount of neutral salts. 
It may be separated from the albumin of blood serum by saturation with 
MgSCb, or by semi-saturation with (NFL^SCb. 
Paraglobuli?:, (^Serum-globulin). 
Labo7 atory Work-—Paraglobuli?i. 
Take the globulin obtained by the dialysis of blood serum in experi- 
ment 2 under “Serum Albumin,” and dissolve in a 2 per cent salt solution. 
This may be done by agitating the mixture of globulin and salt solution 
and allowing to stand for a time. Observe that the liquid froths when 
shaken. 
1. Heat a small portion of the globulin solution. Does it coagulate? 
Filter, and to the filtrate apply the biuret test. Was the coagulation com- 
plete? 
2. Try the tests and fill out the blank spaces under serum globulin in PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
21 
the table at close for general tests for proteids. Observe that some tests 
will be interfered with by the presence of NaCl. Let the student indicate 
these tests in his notes. By reference to experiment 3 under “Serum Al- 
bumin,’’ the student will recall that both serum globulin and serum albumin 
are precipitated by complete saturation with (NH^SO-t. 
Fibrinogen. 
The substance in the blood plasma, which by clotting yields fibrin, is 
called fibrinogen. It is also found in chyle, serous fluids and transudations, 
such as hydrocele fluids. It is distinguished from paraglobulin (1) by 
forming clots spontaneously from plasma, (2) by coagulating in 16 per cent 
salt solution while paraglobulin does not appreciably coagulate in a solu- 
tion below 20 per cent. The change from fibrinogen to fibrin is not yet 
well understood but may be due to a ferment called fibrin ferment present 
in the blood. 
Myosin. 
When death occurs, the pliable muscles undergo a change called rigor 
mortis. An almost fluid constituent resembling fibrinogen forms a less 
fluid substance called myosin. The name myosinogen is now generally 
accepted for the antecedent of myosin. Myosin coagulates at 550 to 56° in 
salt solutions. Upon ignition it leaves a large ash residue largely composed 
of salts of lime. It is converted into syntonin by the action of acids. 
Laboratory Work—Myosin. 
1. First secure some muscle from round steak; free it from fat, grind 
F m a sausage mill until it is finely pulverized, and wash it until the wash 
water is clear. Place it in a2O per cent solution of ammonium chlorid and 
stir well. Allow to stand about 24 hours with occasional stirring or shak- 
ing. The myosin dissolves and upon filtering will pass into the filtrate. 
Pour the filtrate into 20 volumes of distilled water, which will cause a pre- 
cipitation of myosin. Allow to settle and wash three times by decantation. 
2. Dissolve a portion in 10 percent solution of common salt. Ascer- 
tain if it can be precipitated by saturation with common salt. 
3. Test its solubility in 0.1 per cent solution of HCI. 
No. Test. 
Egg. 
Albumin 
Serum 
Albumin 
Serum 
Globulin 
Peptone 
Gelatin 
5.—Alcohol 
6.—Nitric Acid 
7.—(NH >2 SO4 
8.—MgSCTt (Sat.) ... 
p.-Ac.acid&Pot.F. Cy. 
10-Phospho tungstic. 
1 i-Pot. Mercu. lodid. 
12-Tannic acid 
13—Picric acid 
14-Heavy Metals ... . 
15-Millon’s Test .... 
16-Biuret Test j PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
22 
When the hemaglobin of the blood undergoes spontaneous decompo- 
sition a substance called globin is formed. Globin is similar to the globu- 
lins, but not so readily soluble in salt solutions, in dilute acids or in alkalis. 
It has not been investigated as fully as other proteids. 
Globin. 
Class IV. Fibrin. 
This proteid forms in threads through blood as it spontaneously clots 
and entangles the blood corpuscles in its meshes. It may be removed as 
rapidly as it forms by beating the fresh blood with bundles of sticks. When 
so removed and the blood corpuscles are washed out, it is a white, elastic 
substance. It dissolves gradually in acids and alkalies, but is insoluble in 
water and in dilute saline solutions. Fibrinogen is the primary form in 
which fibrin occurs in the blood. Experiments on digestion of fibrin will 
be given in the chapters on stomach and intestinal digestion. 
Class V. Coagulated Proteids. 
This class of substances is produced by the action of heat on many 
proteids previously described. The prolonged action of alcohol 
coagulates all proteids except peptones. The coagulated proteids are not 
soluble in water in dilute acids or alkalis. When dissolved in strong acids 
they are broken up. Some writers class fibrin, myosin, and casein in this 
class; but the difference in solubilities and action with reagents is so great 
that this classification seems to conform better to these reactions. The 
coagulated proteids are acted upon by gastric or pancreatic fluids and con- 
verted into peptones. 
In the earlier stages of stomach digestion albumoses are formed, later 
these are transformed into peptones. Pepsin will not carry the process 
farther. Pancreatic juice will, however, cause a further breaking up of a 
part of the peptones and the formation of leucin and tyrosin. 
Class VI. Albumoses and Peptones. 
Laboratory Work—Albumoses. 
i.-—Make a2O per cent solution of a commercial peptone. It contains 
both albumoses and peptones. Boil a small amount—3 or 4c. c.—in a test 
tubeand observe thatno coagulation takes place. This shows absence of 
albumin and globulin. 
2.—Saturate 10 c. c. of the solution by adding 10 c. c. of a saturated 
solution (NFC) 2504 and Bg. of the crystalline (NFU)2 SO* and heating one 
half hour at a temperature 3s° to 40°. The sticky precipitate formed con- 
sists of albumoses. Filter and save filtrate to test for peptones. Remove 
the albumoses from the filter and dissolve in about 20 c. c. of water. The 
solution may be hastened by warming. 
3.—Heat a portion obtained above and containing albumoses, to boil- 
ing, it does not coagulate. 
4.—To another portion add nitric acid drop by drop; a precipitate may 
form, but dissolves on addition of more acid. When the precipitate is dis- PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
23 
solved add some saturated NaCl until a precipitate forms. Upon heating, 
the precipitate dissolves, and when cooled reappears again; characteristic 
of albumoses. 
5.—Try the potassium ferrocyanid and acetic acid test; if no precipitate 
occurs add saturated salt solution. The precipitate will dissolve on gentle 
heat, (50° to 6o°) and reappear when cold. 
6.—Add one or two drops of acetic acid and some saturated salt solu- 
tion. On heating, the precipitate disappears; and upon cooling reappears. 
7.—Try tests in table at close of section on native albumins. 
1.—To a portion of the filtrate obtained in experiment 1, under albu- 
moses apply the biuret test in the cold. If positive results are obtained, 
peptone is present. 
Laboratory Work—Peptones. 
2.—To the rest of the filtrate obtained above apply the tests in the 
table under the section on native albumins. 
NITROGENOUS BODIES ALLIED TO PROTEIDS. 
The substances called by some “albuminoids” have nearly the same 
percentage composition as proteids and resemble them in man}' general 
points. They possess greater difference of properties than do proteids, but 
may yield leucin and sometimes tyrosin when they undergo hydrolytic de- 
composition. None of them are crystalline. 
Mucin. 
Mucin is the substance which gives to many secretions their peculiar 
viscid consistency,—as in saliva, the synovial fluid and bile. It may be dis- 
solved from the glands, tendons and various connective tissues. There are 
several varieties of mucin. They are all tenacious. They are also precip- 
itated by acetic acid, but are soluble in dilute alkalis. They are supposed 
by some to be compounds of a proteid and a carbohydrate called “animal 
gum;” while others regard their structures as an unsettled question. The 
animal gum may be simply an accompanying substance, or may be a 
decomposition product, and not an original constituent. 
Collagen. 
The fibrils of the white fibrous tissue are composed of a substance 
called collagen. The same substance furnishes the greater part of the an- 
imal matter of the bones; but in the latter place is called ossein. From 
connective tissue it may be secured by digesting the other constituents of 
tendons in trypsin. As thus prepared it will not dissolve in water, saline 
solutions, or dilute cold mineral acids, or alkalis. Upon prolonged boiling 
with water, or for a shorter time with dilute mineral acids, collagen (ossein) 
is transformed into gelatin. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
24 
Lab ora tory Work— Collagen. 
1.—Take a slender bone and after cleaning thoroughly, place in a 10 
per cent solution of HCI. Allow it to stand for about 48 hours. At the 
■end of that time it will be found that the hard parts of the bone have been 
dissolved. The soft, flexible substance is ossein, identical with the colla- 
gen obtained from connective tissue. (Preserve the solution to test for 
mineral constituents.) 
2.—Wash the elastic mass obtained in experiment 1 and boil in pure 
water until a jelly-like mass is formed. This mass is gelatin. 
3.—Take a portion of the acid in which the bone was dissolved and 
test for calcium. Test another portion for phosphates. What has already 
shown (in example 1) the presence of the carbonate group? 
When dry, gelatin is a brittle, transparent, somewhat colored substance. 
It does not dissolve in cold water, but swells up into a spongy mass. Upon 
heating in water it dissolves and when the liquid cools it forms a jelly-like 
mass, even when so small an amount as 1 per cent is present. It dissolves 
readily in dilute acids even when cold. It digests in the gastric juice form- 
ing a peptone-like substance, but is not a substitute for proteids as a food. 
It contains more nitrogen and less carbon than proteids, but is said, when 
pure, to contain no sulfur. It gives many of the general reactions for pro- 
teids. 
Gelatin. 
Laboratory Work—Gelatin. 
I—Make1—Make a 2 per cent solution of the best French gelatin and to a por- 
tion add some bromine water; a yellow, sticky precipitate forms. 
2.—Try the tests in the table under native albumins and fill out the 
blanks. 
It will be noticed that the heavy metals do not precipitate gelatin and 
that the xanthoproteic reaction is weak, the latter indicating the absence of 
the phenol group. HgCL solution will precipitate gelatin from acid solu- 
tions. It is probable that the reactions will be affected by the presence of 
traces of proteids in the solution. 
Chondrin. 
As collagen is the antecedent of gelatin, so the hyaline matrix of carti- 
lage is the antecedent of chondrin; and the name chondrigen has been pro- 
posed for it. Digestion in hot water transforms the chondrigen into chon- 
drin. It dissolves like gelatin in hot water, but unlike gelatin is precipitat- 
ed by acetic acid, and by a trace of dilute mineral acids, though in the lat- 
ter it dissolves in excess. It is not precipitated by HgCL and is by lead 
acetate. In these reactions it acts the reverse of gelatin. Chondrin is 
probably a mixture of gelatin and mucinoid material. 
Klastin. 
This substance is found is yellow elastic fibers. It dissolves in boiling- 
alkalis, and in boiling mineral acids. Like gelatin, it swells up, but does PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
25 
not dissolve in cold water. It does not dissolve in hot water, but is soluble 
in caustic soda. It is also dissolved by strong minerals acids, but in so do- 
ing undergoes a chemical change. Elastin is readily digested by pepsin or 
by trypsin. In undergoing decomposition in strong HCI and ZnCb it yields 
products unlike those given by gelatin or proteids. 
Keratin. 
A substance obtained from horn, hair and nails, having a texture which 
imparts to these tissues their characteristic hardness, is called keratin. It 
is very insoluble. It dissolves in strong, hot alkalis. Its composition is 
similar to that of proteids, but contains a varying amount of sulfur (.5 per 
cent to 5 per cent). It is digested by neither pepsin nor trypsin. Upon 
decomposition it yields leucin and tyrosin. 
Neurokeratin. 
This is a substance obtained from neuroglia and nerve fibers. It re- 
sists decomposition by some of the agents which will decompose keratin, 
but is in other respects similar. 
SALIVA. 
The saliva is the product of the three salivary glands—parotid, sub- 
maxillary and sublingual, together with the secretions of the serous and 
mucous glands distributed over the surface of the mouth and tongue. Ac- 
cording to the researches of Heidenhain there are two kinds of secreting 
cells in the salivary glands—albuminous and mucous. The albuminous 
secretes a more fluid substance containing a small amount of proteid co- 
agulable by heat. The parotid gland is chiefly composed of albuminous 
cells. The mucous glands secrete a sticky substance containing mucin in- 
stead of a proteid. The submaxillary gland is composed partly of mucous 
cells and partly of albuminous cells the sublingual is composed chiefly of 
mucous cells. The mixed saliva is, when fresh, a clear, viscid fluid with 
ordinarily a slightly alkaline reaction. It contains an occasional epithelial 
cell and a few corpuscles, so similar to leucocytes that they are supposed to 
be migrating leucocytes somewhat changed. They are more globular and 
contain minute granules which exhibit the Brownian movement. It may 
contain bacteria of several varieties and even pus or blood corpuscles in in- 
flammation. 
Saliva is ordinarily alkaline though the alkalinity is much diminished, 
or it may be even acid, after a long fast. In the night, or long after a meal, 
or after long talking, the saliva may be acid. Saliva contains only five or 
six parts per 1000 of solid constituents, the rest being water. The specific 
gravity is from 1.002 toi.ooß. The amount of saliva secreted cannot be 
accurately determined. Mitscherlich estimated it to be 240 to 300 c. c. per PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
2 6 
day; others place it at 1400 to 1500 c. c. The quantity is dimished in acute 
febrile attacks, in diabetes, in severe diarrhoea and in cholera. There is an 
increase of saliva in certain diseases, especially those which produce an in- 
flamed condition of the mouth, tonsils, and pharynx. Potassium iodid, 
pilocarpin, mercury salts, acids, alkalis and other irritant poisons increase 
the flow of saliva. There is a change in the saliva when the flow is in- 
creased by drugs,—albumin and salts are increased. The flow of saliva in- 
creases after meals and during mastication. A decrease is caused by atro- 
pin. There is no dextrose in the saliva in diabetes. In jaundice or other 
diseases in which bile is apt to be found in the urine, it is not found in the 
saliva. Urea may be found in the saliva normal!}' in small amount, and in 
larger amount in cases of uremia. Lactic acid may, in diseased conditions, 
be found in the saliva. 
The saline constituents of the saliva are phosphates, carbonates, sul- 
fates and chlorids combined with sodium, calcium and magnesium. The 
sodic carbonate and phosphate sometimes form calculi in the ducts of the 
glands. The tartar on the teeth is of essentially the same composition as 
the calculi. The calcium salts are held in solution by CO2; upon standing, 
this gas passes off and the calcium salts precipitate, rendering the saliva 
turbid. Potassium sulfocyanate constitutes about .06 per cent of the 
saliva. It probably results from the decomposition of the proteids in the 
body. 
Nitrites and ammonia are present in the saliva. The most important 
constituent of the saliva from a physiological point of view is the enzyme, 
or ferment,' called ptyalin. The ferment is diastasic or amylolytic in its 
action—that is, it acts on starch to cause hydrolytic decomposition, con- 
verting the starch into dextrins, then into isomaltose, and finally into mal- 
tose. The action seems to be identical with that of diastase which is stored 
in the grains, especially barley. The temperature at which it acts is, how- 
ever, different, proving that the ferments are different. The amount of 
ptyalin present in the saliva varies somewhat. The ptyalin is most active 
in neutral or nearly neutral solutions. A slight alkalinity is favorable to 
its action, a trace of acid does not completely arrest its action, but stronger 
alkalies or decided acidity destroys the activity of the enzyme. 
Laboratory Work—Saliva. 
I.—Collect about 100 c. c. of saliva. Chewing a piece of clean rubber 
or pure paraffin will facilitate the flow of the fluid. Test the reaction with 
litmus. 
2.—Test the specific gravity by glacing about 40 or 50 c. c. in a cylin- 
drical graduate and placing a urinometer in it. Any foam should be first 
removed from the surface with a piece of filter paper. Compare with the 
reading of water. 
3.—To about 5 c, c. of saliva add a few drops of acetic acid; a precipi- 
tate of mucus is thereby formed. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
27 
4-—Test a portion for the biuret reaction. 
5- To a portion add a few drops of nitric acid and heat to boiling-. Is 
albumin present? Add ammonia to ascertain if there is a response to the 
xanthoproteic test. 
7. To about sc.c. of saliva add a drop or two of dilute HCI; shake 
well and filter; then add drop by drop a dilute solution of ferric chlorid 
until a red color results;—this is caused by the sulfocyanates in the saliva. 
In testing the contents of the stomach for opium by a similar test, mercuric 
chlorid should be added, causing the red color to disappear if due to ferric 
sulfocyanate. 
6. Observe that mucin in the saliva gives Millon’s reaction. 
8. To another portion of the saliva add a little iodic acid and some 
dilute starch paste. Some iodin will be set free by the sulfocyanate and 
color the starch blue. 
9. To some saliva add a few drops of H2SO4 and mix; then add a few 
drops of potassium iodid solution and some starch paste. lodin will be 
liberated by the nitrous acid and the blue color will appear. 
10. Another test for nitrous acid is to add a drop or two of HCI and 
two or three drops of a saturated solution of sulfanilic acid. Upon the 
further addition of a few drops of naphthylaminhydrochlorid, a pink or red 
color will appear if nitrous acid is present. This test is much used to ascer- 
tain the presence of nitrates in drinking water. 
11. The mucin may be precipitated from sc. c. of saliva by 25 c. c. of 
absolute alcohol. After standing a few hours it may be filtered, washed 
with alcohol and then with ether, and finally dried. 
12. It will be found to be insoluble in cold water, but soluble in alkalis 
and in acid (HCJ) by boiling. In the latter case it will reduce Fehling’s solu- 
tion. It is not a sugar, however, though its character is not yet fully de- 
termined. (The student will remember that a solution must be rendered 
alkaline before testing with Fehling’s solution.) 
13. To about 30 c. c. of starch paste, at a temperature of 350 to 40°, 
add six drops of saliva. Have a few test tubes with Fehling’s solution and 
others with a small quantity of iodin solution ready to test the mixture at 
intervals of two minutes. The iodin tests will reveal the changes of starch 
to dextrins until achroodextrin is formed; while Fehling’s test will show the 
appearance of maltose and its increase. Note time and results of each 
test. 
14. To 10 c. c. of starch solution add sc. c. of the saliva and test as in 
experiment 13. Test rapidly. 
15. Boil sc.c. of saliva; allow it to cool and add 10 c. c. of starch 
solution. Test as before with iodin, also with Fehling’s solution. What is 
the result? 
16. To 10 c. c. of a starch solution add 0.2 c. c. of a 1 per cent solution 
of acetic acid; mix and add 3 diops of saliva and mix again, compaie the 
rapidity of the action with that in expeiiments 13. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
28 
I?. Repeat experiment 16, using 0.6 c. c. of a 0.3 per cent HCI solu- 
tion. The HCI solution may be prepared by adding 10 c. c. of concentrated 
HCI to one liter of water. This will have only about one-tenth of the acid- 
ity of the gastric juice. 
GASTRIC JUICE. 
Its Physical and Chemical Characters. 
Pure gastric juice is a thin, usually colorless fluid, possessed of a very 
acid reaction, and of a peculiar odor. Its specific gravity varies from 1.001 
to 1.010, even in the same individual. This variation is dependent upon the 
conditions of secretion. Boiling the gastric juice does not cause its coagu- 
lation, but renders it inactive. The gastric juice of warm-blooded animals 
ceases to exert its power when cooled to o°C. The gastric juice of man 
contains less than I per cent of solid matter, of which about 2/z are organic 
and Yi mineral, There are usually gland cells, epithelial cells and mucous 
corpuscles present. 
The acid reaction of the gastric juice is due chiefly to free HCI, espe- 
cially when there is no food in the stomach. After the introduction of 
food, particularly of hydro-carbons, lactic acid appears in considerable 
quantities, also butyric and acetic acids. Alkaline chlorids, earthy phos- 
phates and iron are found in the gastric juice. The amount of HCI found 
on the average, in human gastric juice, is from 2 to 3 parts per thousand. It 
is thought by some to be in part loosely combined with an organic body. 
The perfectly fresh gastric juice seems to have a very little coagulable albu- 
min, but after standing for a short time only, albumoses can be found. 
Among the organic materials of human gastric juice are at least two 
enzymes,—pepsin and rennin. As the gastric juice obtainable is almost 
always mingled with saliva and residues of food, it is impossible to make 
perfectly reliable analyses. 
Pepsin is the enzyme which acts on the proteid constituents of food 
and transforms them into peptones and albumoses. It acts only in acid 
solutions but will act in other acids besides HCJ. The gastric juice may be 
kept for months without losing its proteolytic activity, as it seems to possess 
strong antiseptic powers. Pepsin does not seem to be a true proteid, as the 
purest pepsin does not respond to the proteid reactions. It is soluble in 
water and glycerol. A quite active solution may be made by allowing the 
minced lining of a hog’s stomach to remain two or three days in glycerol. 
Pepsin acts best at a temperature of 40°, is destroyed at a temperature of 
55° in alkaline solutions, at 65° in acid solutions, and at ioo° in water. In 
the dry condition it will endure a temperature of more than ioo° without 
having its power destroyed. A dilute alcohol precipitates it, though it does 
not render it wholly inert; but an excess of alcohol destroys the activity of 
the pepsin. Raw fibrin swells up in dilute (0.1 per cent) HCI, but will not PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
29 
dissolve at ordinary room temperature in two days. Upon the addition of 
a little pepsin it quickly dissolves. The white of egg cooked will not be 
changed materially in several hours by ao.i per cent solution of HCI, but it 
will become transparent on the edges, swell up, and gradually dissolve if 
pepsin is present at the same time. Proteid and similar compounds, except 
keratin and nuclein are digested by pepsin and HCI. The nuclei of cells 
and epidermal tissue are therefore the chief nitrogen—containing structures 
not affected by the gastric juice. Fat is not dissolved, but its envelope of 
connective tissue is digested. Starch, cellulose and the sugars are not 
changed by the action of pepsin. The proteids are changed to albumoses 
and peptones; and even continued action will not form the further decom- 
position products which result from intestinal digestion. 
Rennin is the enzyme which causes the coagulation of milk. It is pres- 
ent in physiological conditions, but may in certain pathological conditions 
be absent, as in carcinoma, in atrophy of the mucous membrane, and in ca- 
tarrhal conditions of the stomach. It may be separated from other constit- 
uents of the gastric juice in a fairly, but not perfectly pure state. It does 
not give the proteid reactions. By heating rennin solutions it is destroyed. 
This occurs more easily in acid than in alkaline solutions and enables one to 
prepare a rennin free pepsin solution. Hammarsten has proved that in 
neutral solutions obtained from certain animals, the rennin is not present 
but is immediately formed upon the addition of an acid. It is therefore 
probable that the zymogen and not the enzyme is secreted, and that the 
HCI present in the gastric juice causes the formation of the enzyme. 
Since the cells of the glands of the fundus of the stomach consist of 
two kinds of cells, central and border, it was supposed that the secretions 
would be different from those of the pylorus. Klemensiewicz isolated a 
portion of the pylorus to ascertain the character of its secretion. He 
found it to be devoid of acid and to contain little rennin. By other meth- 
ods, however, Contejean has proved that acid is secreted by the pyloric 
cells. He accounts for the previous results on the ground that the inflam- 
mation affected the secretions and that they were therefore abnormal and 
the results unreliable. The source of the HCI is undoubtedly to be found 
in. the chlorids of the blood. But how the alkaline blood can furnish to the 
cells of the mucous membrane free acid has not yet been explained. It is 
probably due to the secreting power of the cells. The cells of the glands 
contain pepsin as a zymogen and not as an enzyme. The name pepsinogen 
bas been proposed for this antecedent of pepsin. Propepsin has also been 
suggested. 
Laboratory Work—Gastric Juice. 
The silver nitrate and litmus paper test for HCI cannot be used where 
organic acids and chlorids may be present. In the examination of the gas- 
tric juice it is necessary to use some other method. 
1. To a solution of HCI of a strength equal to that of the gastric juice, PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
in an evaporating dish, add 2 to 3 drops of Gunzberg’s reagent and evapo- 
rate to dryness, taking care not to burn the reagent. A pinkish red color 
is present due to free HCI. Gunzberg’s reagent is made by dissolving ig. 
vanillin and 2g. of phloroglucin in loog. alconol. HCI solution may be 
prepared by diluting 6 c.c. of HCI (sp. gr. 1,19) to 1 liter. 
2. To lor 2 c.c. of the HCI solution in an evaporating dish add 2or 3 
drops of Boas’ reagent. Boas’ reagent is prepared by dissolving log. of 
resorcin, 3g. of cane sugar and 3 c.c. of alcohol in 100 c.c. of water. Evap- 
orate by gentle heat to dryness,—a pink color is due to the free mineral acid. 
The color fades on cooling. 
3. To the acid solution add one half as much of a I per cent solution 
of lactic acid and as much of a 2 per cent solution of pepsin and repeat 
each of the above tests. Does the presence of the organic matter prevent 
the reaction or interfere with its clearness? 
Several other reactions are known for the detection of free mineral 
acids but none are better than these. Paper saturated in tropaeolin will turn 
pink, Congo red paper turns blue, benzopurpurin turns dark brown; but or- 
ganic matter interferes with all these tests. 
Detectio7i of Lactic Acid. 
1. Uffelman’s Test.—To 10 c.c. of a 2.5 percent solution of carbolic 
acid add a drop or two of dilute ferric chlorid, forming a deep purple color;, 
use this as a reagent. To about 3 c.c. of the solution to be tested add 
enough of the reagent to give the liquid a decidedly purple color, and heat. 
Lactic acid will leave a straw yellow color, while mineral acids leave a col- 
orless solution. Use a 1 per cent solution of lactic acid to make the test. 
Notice the color of the original solution, for if it is a straw color at first, 
the resulting solution may be straw color and yet not indicate the presence 
of lactic acid. 
2. To about 3 c.c. of lactic acid solution add a few drops of HCI and 
repeat the above test; does the presence of mineral acid interfere with 
the reaction? To another portion add still more HCI and ascertain about 
what proportion will affect the reaction by discharging the yellow straw 
color. 
3. Try the above test, using separately alcohol, sugar solution and 
peptone solution. Does the presence of these substances leave a yellowish 
color which might be mistaken for that produced by lactic acid? 
The student will probably be convinced that the above test will be un- 
reliable in the presence of substances apt to be found in the gastric juice. 
The lactic acid may be separated from all these by extracting the liquid 
several times with ether. The ether must then be distilled off and the res- 
idue be dissolved in water and tested by Uffelman’s test. 
Peptic Digestion. 
A fluid that will serve to perform the processes of peptic digestion. 
may be prepared by mincing the inner layer of a hog’s stomach and treating; PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMSTRY. 
it with twice its weight of strong glycerol, allowingit to stand several days, 
or by dissolving ig. of commercial pepsin in 1 liter of a 0.25 per cent solu- 
tion of HCI. The latter will be used for the following experiments: 
31 
1. To 2g. of the white of a hard boiled egg, which has been rubbed 
through a fine meshed sieve, add 20 c.c. of the acid pepsin solution in a test 
tube,—label No. 1. Boil 20 c.c. of the acid pepsin solution, cool to 40° C. 
and add to 2g. white of egg in a test tube,—label No. 2. In test tube No. 
3, treat 2g. of white of egg with 20 c.c. of 0.25 per cent HCI solution. In 
test tube No. 4 treat 2g. of white of egg with 5 c.c. of pepsin solution with- 
out acid. In test tube No. 5 treat 2g. of white of egg with 5 c.c. of pepsin 
solution and 15 c.c. of the 0.25 per cent HCI solution.- 
Place the five test tubes with contents in a beaker, and place in an incu- 
bater or water bath kept at 40°. Observe occasionally and notice the 
changes. In which does digestion occur most rapidly? Why is there no 
digestion in No. 2? What changes occur in No. 5? Explain. 
2. After about an hour the contents of tube No. I will be found di- 
gested into an opalescent liquid. Filter, and to about 10 c.c. of the filtrate 
in a small beaker add Bg. of powdered ammonium sulfate. Immerse from 
30 minutes to an hour in a water bath. This will saturate the liquid with 
the ammonium sulfate and precipitate albumose. The albumose will gather 
as a sticky substance at the surface. Filter through a filter saturated with 
solution and wash the residue with saturated solution of the 
same. 
Dissolve the residue on the filter in pure water and preserve to test for 
albumose. 
3. Take the filtrate from last experiment containing peptone 
(a) Test a portion with potassium ferrocyanid and acetic acid 
test. Do peptones respond to these tests? Do other proteids? 
(b) Test a portion by biuret test in cold. Peptones give this test 
in cold. 
4. Take the albumose solution made in experiment 2 above and test a 
portion by boiling. Does it coagulate? Does albumose coagulate by heat? 
(b) Exactly neutralize the remainder by NaOH. Test a portion 
(c) Test a portion with tannic acid. 
by nitric acid test. 
(c) Test another portion by potassium ferrocyanid and acetic 
acid. 
(d) Test another portion with tannic acid. 
If the tube had remained from 3 to 5 days in digestion, very little al- 
bumose would have been found. Why? 
If tubes 2 and 3 remain several days and are then observed, a solution 
is seen; testing shows neither albumose or peptones, but syntonin. Why? PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
32 
PANCREATIC SECRETION, 
The secretion of the pancreas is usually secured for analysis and experi- 
ment by fistulas, made by inserting a cannula in the pancreatic duct of 
animals. It is probable that the inflammation so produced renders the fluid 
somewhat abnormal; but it is as nearly normal as can be obtained by any 
method. 
The pancreatic juice obtained by a temporary fistula has a specific grav- 
ity of 1.030, while that of a permanent one has a specificic gravity of 1.010. 
The pancreatic secretion is somewhat viscid fluid resembling saliva. It 
has a saltish taste and an alkaline reaction. Analysis by different chemists 
vary somewhat, but the pancreatic juice of a dog has approximately 900 
parts of water, 90 parts organic matter and 10 parts inorganic salts per 1000 
parts. The organic matter is chiefly proteids and ferments. The more 
abundant the flow the less the amount of solid matter. Sodium chlorid 
constitutes about seven tenths of the salts. Potassium chlorid, sodium 
carbonate, sodium, calcium and magnesium phosphates and traces of iron 
are also found. The alkaline reaction is due to the carbonate and phos- 
phate of sodium. 
The pancreatic secretion is coagulated either by cooling to o°C., or by 
heating to 75° C. Alcohol, concentrated acids, tannic acid and mineral 
salts cause a precipitate. The precipitate by alcohol carries the ferments 
down with it. 
The pancreatic juice readily undergoes putrefaction. If some of the 
secretion has been allowed to stand for a time and is then treated with 
chlorin or bromin water a red color is produced, whereas fresh pancreatic 
juice gives no color. Trytophan, a decomposition product, causes the red 
color. A short time afterward no color is given, as the decomposition goes 
on and new compounds are formed. 
The work of the pancreas is not only to produce the enzymes, but it 
has an important action in the transformation of dextrose in animal bodies. 
When the pancreas of a dog has been removed a large amount of sugar at 
once appears in the urine. Several theories to account for this fact have 
been proposed, none of which are entirely satisfactory. But it is generally 
admitted that directly or indirectly the change of grape sugar into other 
substances is regulated by the pancreas. 
The pancreatic gland contains globulin, nucleoproteid, albumin, nuklein, 
leucin (CeHisNCb), xanthin (C5H4N402). hypoxanthin (CgTUN-iO), guanin 
(CsHoNoO), adenin (CSHSNS), inosite (CeHiiOe), lactic acid (CsHeOs), vola- 
tile fatty acids, fat and mineral substances. 
There are at least three enzymes; trypsin, which acts on proteids, amy- 
lopsin, which acts on starch, and steapsin or pialyn, which decomposes fats 
into free fatty acids and glycerol. Claude Bernard believed that a fourth 
ferment was present which emulsified the fats, Lut since the presence of PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
33 
fatty acids due to the decomposition of fats will emulsify fat, the presence 
of such an enzyme is doubtful. Some authors believe a ferment which coag- 
ulates milk to be present. 
Trypsin is not contained in the fresh pancreas but its zymogen only 
exists there. The trypsin is readily formed upon standing or by treating 
with acids. The zymogen is soluble in glycerol, and this substance is 
usually used to prepare extracts for experiments. Trypsin is formed by the 
splitting up of the zymogen, which occurs in watery solutions, in acid solu- 
tions and in solutions of neutral alkaline salts. Trypsin carries on its pro- 
teolytic activity in an alkaline, neutral or slightly acid medium. Its great- 
est activity is shown in a fluid whose alkalinity is equal to a i per cent solu- 
tion of sodium carbonate. The activity of trypsin increases with the tem- 
perature up to 6o°C and then rapidly falls, all action ceasing between 75° C 
and Bo°C. When fibrin is digested there is no preliminary swelling of fibrin, 
but the outside is at once eroded and the material is gradually digested. 
The digestion of proteids by trypsin is carried further than by pepsin, 
A globulin may be obtained as an intermediate product. Albumoses, pep- 
tones, leucin, tyrosin, aspartic acid (C4H7NO4), lysatin. (CeHnNsO), lysin 
(CeHuN-iCb), ammonia and trytophan (proteinochromogen) are produced 
by pancreatic digestion. Putrefaction must be prevented or other sub- 
stances will be produced. 
Amylopsin is a diastasic enzyme which causes starch to pass through 
nearly, if not exactly, the same changes which the ptyalin of the saliva 
causes. Maltose, dextrins, iso-maltose and a very little dextrose are the 
products in the case of pancreatic digestion, but it is doubtful whether saliva 
ever produces dextrose. 
This ferment acts very rapidly and with great power. The rapidity in- 
creases with increase of temperature to 30° C. From 30° to 450 it remains 
unchanged. Above 45° C there is a decrease in rapidity. A large amount 
of the ferment converts a small amount of starch into dextrin and sugar 
almost instantly. Smaller amounts in proportion act less rapidly. Roberts 
estimated that pancreatic diastase is able to transform into sugar and dex- 
trin, 40,000 times its own weight of starch. This ferment does not appear 
in children under a month old 
Steapsin is the enzyme which acts upon the fat. The fat is broken up 
into fatty acids and glycerol. The fatty acids unite readily with the sodium 
carbonate of the pancreatic juice and form soap which emulsifies some of 
the remaining fat. The emulsion will occur when the slightest trace of acid 
is present. It is probable that the proteids have some influence on the 
emulsifying of fat. Some have supposed that a fourth enzyme was present 
for this work, but that is not generally accepted. 
Laboratory Work—Pancreatic Digestion. 
Proteolytic action of trypsin. 
1. Cut into a pulp the pancreas of a recently killed animal and take PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
34 
about sc. c. for this experiment. Place sg. of fresh fibrin, (or an equal 
amount of the finely divided white of a hard boiled egg) into a small Erle- 
meyer flask, add 20 c. c. of 1-25 chloroform water and then add the 5 c. c. 
of the pancreatic pulp. 
Take out about % of the mixture and render decidedly acid by a few 
drops of HCI. Place in a covered beaker or test tube and keep at a tem- 
perature of 40° C. Render the remainder alkaline by a few drops of a sodium 
carbonate solution and keep at a temperature of 40° C for 2or 3 days. Ob- 
serve that the acid solution does not digest. After half an hour test a por- 
tion of the alkaline solution for albumoses. After an hour test for peptones. 
After several hours a disagreeable odor, due to indol (CsPEN) appears. 
This is not a true digestive product, but due to putrefaction. 
After two days acidify with acetic acid, boil and filter. 
a. To a portion of the filtrate apply the biuret test in the cold. What 
is shown to be present? 
b. To another portion add a few drops of bromin water and shake. 
If a pink or purple red color is shown, what substance does it indicate? 
c. Evaporate the remainder in a watch glass to a volume of a few 
cubic centimeters, allow to stand over night and examine the residue for 
tryosin needles or leucin balls. If none are visible, concentrate more and 
allow to cool for a time and look again. A more complete description of 
leucin and tyrosin will be given later and the material obtained above may 
be preserved until that time. 
Diastasic action of amylopsin. 
1. Prepare a starch paste by treating ig. of starch with 100 c. c. of 
boiling water and allow to cool. Place about 15 c. c. in each of 2 tubes. 
To tube No. 1, add 2 c. c. of fresh pancreatic pulp, and to tube No. 2 add 
the same amount of pancreatic pulp previously boiled. Place both in water 
bath at 40° C. At intervals of 15 minutes test a portion of each for starch, 
by iodin; and for sugar by Fehling’s solution. Compare the results of the 
test with those from the action of saliva on starch paste. Which is the 
more rapid? Is the character of changes the same? 
Fat Splitting Action of Steapsin. 
The fat for this must be perfectly neutral. It may be so prepared by 
mixing 10 c. c. of cottonseed or olive oil with 20 c. c. of water made alka- 
line with some solution. Now add an equal volume of ether and 
shake until the fat dissolves. Place in a separatory funnel and draw off the 
water. Wash with fresh water and draw off again. Evaporate the ether 
over hot water. Avoid a flame while evaporating. The neutral fat re- 
mains. 
I. To about 2c.c. of the neutral fat in a test tube No. 1 add about 5 
c. c. of the fresh pancreatic pulp. 
b. To about 2c.c. of the neutral fat in test tube No. 2 add about sc. 
c. of the boiled and remacerated pancreatic pulp. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
35 
Place in each tube a few drops of blue litmus and if not already alka- 
line, render so by a drop or two of solution. Shake and place in 
incubator at 40° C.over night. Observe the condition ofthefatin each tube. 
Observe the reaction. Why is the one in which was placed fresh pulp, acid, 
while the other is alkaline? Caution! If left too long acids may form in 
No. 2 by putrefactive changes, and will then give the following reactions 
similar to No. I. 
To a portion taken from each of the two tubes add about I c. c. of a 2 
per cent (Na-iCOs) solution, and shake vigorously. Why do the contents of 
tube No. i cause emulsification of the remaining fat? Why does a similar 
treatment of No. 2 not produce a permanent emulsion? 
LEUCIN GHibNOl 
The structural formula of leucin is (CPC) 2CH.CH2CH 
and the corresponding name would be alpha-amido-isobutyl-acetic acid. 
Leucin is a cleavage product in the decomposition of proteids, gelatin 
aud horn. It has also been found as a normal constituent of the pancreas, 
spleen, lymphatic glands, salivary glands, the thyroid, thymus, liver, lung 
and testicle. 
It is formed as a result of bacterial decomposition and in pus, diseased 
blood and decomposing epidermis. The peculiar odor from decomposing 
epidermis between the toes is due to decomposition products of leucin. It 
has been found in plants, showing that it may result from decomposition of 
vegetable proteids. In pathological conditions leucin has been found to- 
gether with tyrosin in urine in acute yellow atrophy of of the liver, in cases 
of phosphorus poisoning and in cases of cirrhosis, in the alvine dejecta of 
cholera patients, in certain dropsical exudations, and in the sputum in cases 
of pulmonary gangrene. fGamgee.) 
When pure, leucin occurs in glistening, white plates, but as usually found 
it is in waxy, yellowish balls, which often show faint radial markings. It is 
readily soluble in hot water, somewhat less so in cold, it is soluble in acids 
and alkalis, but difficultly soluble in alcohol. It forms salts with both 
acids and bases. The acid and alkaline solutions are dextro-rotary, but iso- 
meric forms seem to exist, some of which are inactive and some dextro- 
rotary. Leucin forms compounds with acids and also with bases. 
Laboratory Work—Leucin. 
1. When heated to I7O°C. leucin volatilizes and condenses in rosettes 
of fine, plate-like crystals. At a still higher heat it breaks up into amyla- 
min [CSHu(NH9)] and CO-?. Try this experiment. 
2. Place a quantity of leucin the size of a pin head on a drop of water 
on a glass slide. Mix it up with the water and observe its action. Cover 
with a cover glass and examine. Sketch the crystals and preserve the 
sketch for reference. Dissolve the crystals by warming, set aside to cool, 
and sketch the crystals which form. 36 
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
3. Add to a quantity of leucin the size of a small pea, a few c. c. of 
urine in a watch glass and heat until it dissolves. Concentrate to one-third 
the volume, cover with beaker and set aside over night. Examine with 
microscope—observe the characteristic waxy, yellowish leucin balls. 
4. Place an amount of leucin the size of a grain of wheat on a piece of 
platinum foil; add two or three drops of nitric acid and evaporate to dry- 
ness. A colorless residue will remain. Now add one or two drops of NaOH 
solution and heat gently—an oily drop is found. This is called Scherer’s 
test. 
5. To test for leucin in the urine it is necessary to precipitate the urine 
with basic lead acetate and filter. Remove excess of lead from filtrate with 
H2S. Evaporate to a very small quantity and set aside to crystallize. Ex- 
amine with a microscope. If leucin is present, it may be removed by warm 
alcohol. Tyrosin may be detected in the same manner. 
TYROSIN-C9HIINO3. 
Tyrosin has the euphonious title of para-oxy-phenyl-alpha-amido- pro- 
pionic acid, with the formula, CeHiOHCH^CHNEECOOH. 
It is probably never found in healthy tissue, but is always the result of 
morbid or putrefactive changes, or of the digestive action of trypsin. It 
may also be produced by the action of acids or proteids or horn, but not 
from gelatin. It is found in the urine in acute yellow atrophy of the liver 
and occasionally in phosphorus poisoning. It is also claimed that it has 
been found in cirrhosis of the liver, in severe cases of typhoid fever and in 
small pox. Simon states that he has been unable to find tyrosin in any case 
of typhoid fever or small pox. 
Tyrosin forms in delicate, silky needles, often grouped in bundles. 
These needles melt at 2350 C. From very impure solutions it separates in 
balls much like those of leucin. Tyrosin is soluble in igoo parts water at 
ordinary temperatures, and in 150 parts boiling water. It is insoluble in al- 
cohol and ether, but it dissolves in alkalis readily, and in acids it forms sol- 
uble compounds. 
Laboratory Work—Tyrosin. 
1. Dissolve on a glass slide and examine as in experiment 2 under 
leucin. 
2. To 1 c.c. water in a test tube add a small amount of tyrosin and 
dissolve. Then add a few drops of Millon’s reagent, and heat the .liquid to 
boiling. It colors rose red, aud later becomes dark red. This reaction 
shows the oxyphenyl group. 
3. Place some crystals of tyrosin on platinum foil, add nitric acid and 
warm. The tyrosin becomes bright orange yellow and dissolves. Add a 
few drops of NaOH solution and a deep reddish yellow solution results. 
This on evaporation leaves an intense blackish brown residue. 
4. To a boiling aqueous solution of tyrosin add some dilute acetic acid PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
37 
and then a little sodium nitrite solution, drop by drop; a beautiful red 
color results. 
Intestinal Digestion as Affected by Bacteria. 
The bacteria which thrive in the presence of the pancreatic fluids set up 
a fermentation which causes carbohydrates to yield lactic acid, carbonic 
acid, hydrogen and butyric acids. This is the chief cause of gases in the 
intestines. Vegetable foods increase the amounts. 
The bacterial action also continues the work of the steapsin on fats 
and produces lower acids such as valeric and butyric, thus increasing the 
acid character of the contents of the lower intestines. These organic acids 
do not stop the action of pancreatic juice. 
Proteids are broken up by bacterial action into leucin, tyrosin and later 
into skatol (CyHyN), indol (CsHyN), and phenol (CeHeO). Cholin, a pois- 
onous decomposition product of lecithin, by bacterial action, yields car- 
bonic oxid, methane and ammonia. These putrefactive changes in excess 
are harmful, but probably aid in preventing the absorption of poisonous 
products when not in excess. 
Indol, skatol and phenol may be found in the vomit of an individual 
suffering from obstruction of the intestines. Indol may be found in normal 
urine as indoxyl sulfuric acid or indican. This is greatly increased in in- 
testinal obstruction. Indol may be obtained from stercoraceous matter in 
vomit, by adding phosphoric acid and distilling. Extract the distillate 
with ether, separate and evaporate ether. To test it, dissolve in alcohol 
and put a piece of pine stick previously moistened with HCI. It will as- 
sume a red color. 
Its alcoholic solution turns red when fuming nitric acid is added, and 
its aqueous yields a red precipitate with the same reagent. Phenol may be 
identified by tests previously given. 
INTESTINAL JUICE- (Succus Entericus). 
The difficulty of securing this digestive fluid in a normal condition is so 
great that little value is placed on analysis. It is highly probable that it is 
not alike in different portions of the intestinal canal, In the duodenum 
and first part of the jejunum, where the glands of Brunner are mingled with 
those of Lieberkuhn, it probably has a very different action from that 
where one set of glands alone furnish the fluid. These fluids are alkaline, 
do not have any proteolytic activity, nor do they act upon fats, except by 
the presence of free fatty acids. There is, however, an enzyme which has 
an inverting power on cane sugar. This is supposed to be like the invertin 
of yeast, as its action is similar. The mucous membrane of the lining has 
this inverting power to a greater degree than the intestinal juices. For this 
reason the membrane is supposed to contain a zymogen of the inverting fer- 
ment. It has been a subject for explanation that an inverting substance 
should be so generously supplied, where in a healthy human being little PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
cane sugar ever reaches; but the fact that maltose seems to be transformed 
during absorption into dextrose, leads to the view that this is the chief work 
of the invertin. 
BILE. 
The bile is, like the pancreatic juice, obtained from a temporary or 
permanent fistula. It is, in either case, not perfectly normal. It is a viscid 
fluid of alkaline reaction and a bitter taste. It contains mucin from the cell 
lining the gall bladder and bile duct. Its specific gravity varies from i.oi 
to 1.04. The color of bile varies in different animals; in human bile it is 
yellowish, greenish or reddish brown. At death the bile bladder is full of 
bile more concentrated than that obtained by fistula. The bile is continu- 
ously secreted, but is poured into the duodenum more rapidly when food 
enters it. Another period of more rapid secretion occurs a few hours later. 
This second increase seems to be due to the arrival in the liver of the pro- 
ducts of digestion. The quantity of bile secreted varies greatly. From 0.6 
to 1 liter has been obtained from a fistula, and it is probable that in normal 
conditions half a liter is secreted in 24 hours. 
Since the bile flows from the bile bladder under very little pressure, a 
slight obstruction may cause its retention and it will then be absorbed into 
the blood and be excreted in the urine. The amount so absorbed may be 
large enough to produce jaundice. The bile in such a case is not, however, 
re-absorbed by the blood vessels, but by the lymphatics of the liver and iss 
carried through the thoracic duct to the blood. Bile contains certain salt 
of bile acids, bile pigments, lecithin, cholesterin, soap, neutral fat, urea, salts 
of calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, iron and copper. There is in 
bile a mucoid nucleo albumin, but it is evidently not the product of the ac- 
tion of the liver cells. 
The Bile Acids are usually present as sodium salts. These acids are a 
glycocholic and a taurocholic. There are several glycocholic acids and 
taurocholic acids. In the bile of some animals both kinds of acids are 
present, and in others only one kind. Upon cleavage, glycocholic acid 
yields glycocholl and cholic acid, while taurocholic acid yields taurin and 
cholic acid. 
Glycocholic acid Glycocholl Cholic acid 
C26H43N06+H20 = CH2NH2CO2H + Q4H4005 
Taurocholic acid Taurin Cholic acid 
C26H4SNSO7+H2O=NH2.CH2.CH2.SO2OH C24H4005 
The difference between glycocholic and taurocholic acids, easily re- 
membered, is that taurocholic acid contains sulfur, the other does not. The 
bile acids may be precipitated from their solutions in water or alcohol, by 
ether, in which case they occur in fine, white needles. The bile acids and 
their salts are dextro-rotary. The bile acids are undoubtedly elaborated irk, 
the liver from proteid material furnished by the blood. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMSTRY. 
The Two Bile Pigments in normal human bile are bilirubin (CsaHseNiOe) 
and biliverdin (Cs-iHseN-jOs). The former is most abundant in human bile 
and gives to it the yellowish red color, while the latter imparts the green 
color to ox bile. Bilirubin is identical with haematoidin, which is found in 
old blood stains. This fact points to haemoglobin as the origin of bilirubin 
and it may be shown that bile pigments may be formed elsewhere than in 
the liver cells. Bilifuscin, biliprasin and bilicyanin have been found in bile 
stones and bile which has undergone chemical change. 
The bile pigments are insoluble in water, nearly so in ether and alcohol; 
chloroform dissolves bilirubin, but does not dissolve biliverdin. Both pig- 
ments are soluble in alkalis, insoluble in acids and yield with calcium and 
other metals compounds insoluble in water. Calcium bilirubin is found in' 
bile stones. There is in the mucin of the bile obtained from the mucous 
glands of the bile sack and duct a nucleo albumin, which gives to the bile 
its viscid character. A nucleo albumin is similar to mucin, but yields on 
'splitting up a proteid and phosphorus-containing nuclein, instead of a pro- 
teid and. a carbohydrate which mucin yields. 
Cholesteri7i (C27H450H or C26H430H), a monatomic alcohol, is present in 
human bile from 0.5 to 3.5 per thousand. While cholesterin is insoluble in 
water it is soluble in a mixture of salts of bile acids, soaps and fats, and it 
is by these that it is held in solution in the bile. Cholesterin is an import- 
ant constituent of nerve tissue and seems to be excreted from the blood by 
the liver. It is found in the white substance of Schwann as well as in white 
blood corpuscles. Cholesterin is found in gall stones. Indeed, some gall 
stones are chiefly composed of cholesterin. A description of cholesterin 
crystals and tests will be given under the analysis of gall stones. Lecithin 
sterns also to be present in the bile as an excretory product, as it is more 
abundant there than elsewhere in the body. The function of excreting leci- 
thin and cholesterin is not fully established, but is not improbable. Minute 
traces of a diastasic ferment have been found in ihe human bile, but in 
quantities too small to be of consequence. The inorganic salts are sodium 
chlorid, sodium phosphate and sodium carbonate, a small amount of potas- 
sium chlorid, a little calcium or magnesium phosphate and traces of cop- 
per, iron and manganese. The action of the bile as a digestive fluid has 
been the subject of much discussion. It has no ferment in sufficient quan- 
tity to affect digestive processes, and yet it is undoubtedly a digestive, as 
well as an excretory fluid. The bile exerts no material diastasic action and no 
direct proteolytic action. It does, however, aid in neutralizing the acidity of 
the gastric juice and thus prepare for pancreatic digestion. The bile acids 
probably precipitate native albumins and thereby hasten their digestion by 
the pancreatic fluids. The bile acids are also precipitated and probably 
dissolved gradually and re-absorbed. After reabsorption they find their 
way back to the liver, instead of passing out with the faeces. 
The bile acids will not alone form a permanent emulsion of fats, but PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
40 
when mixed with the fatty acids produced by the action of steapsin, a per- 
manent emulsion of fats is at once formed. Bile is said to exercise an anti- 
septic action on the contents of the intestines. Bile itself will readily un- 
dergo putrefaction, but free taurocholic acid is a strong antiseptic and it is 
probable that the acid of the chyme precipitates this acid in a free state, 
and that the putrefactive changes are thereby retarded. Bile is a laxative. 
Animals having a biliary fistula are constipated. Constipation may usually 
be relieved by gently pressing the bile into the intestines with the fingers. 
This mode of treatment is undoubtedly preferable to the cholagogues which 
are so apt to injure elsewhere more than they help at this point. 
1. Dilute some bile with 2 volumes of water, heat and test with litmus 
paper. The reaction should be alkaline. 
Laboratory Work—Bile. 
2. Dilute some bile with 2 volumes of water, add acetic acid and no- 
tice the precipitate of mucin or nucleo albumin. (This is not so noticeable 
in ox bile as in human bile.) Preserve for following experiment. 
3. Filter the precipitate of the preceding experiment, and test for pro- 
teids by biuret test. Are proteids present? 
4. Mix about sg. of animal charcoal with 20 c.c. of bile and evaporate 
to complete dryness. Transfer to an Erlenmeyer flask with condensing 
tube, add about 30 c.c. absolute alcohol and boil on a water bath for half an 
hour. Filter into a dry flask, cool and add ether until a permanent precip- 
itate forms. Cork and set in a cool place over night. Filter the crystals 
off in a cool place. Examine, dissolve in water and test by 
Pettenkojfer's Test as follows: To the solution containing bileacids add 
I c.c. of FESCfi slowly, so that it will flow down the side of the tube and form 
a layer at the bottom. Add a drop or two of cane sugar solution, or 3 or 
4 small crystals of cane sugar and agitate gently. Avoid mixing the sulfuric 
acid with the liquid above, but mix the sugar with the liquid down to the 
surface of the acid. A reddish purple or magenta color will appear. 
If too much sugar is added a brownish red color is produced. The 
reaction does not occur immediately, but after standing a few moments. A 
similar test, using one drop of furfurol solution instead of sugar may be 
tried. 
5. Urine containing one part of bile to 100, also one part to 500 should 
be tested by Pettenkoffer’s test. P?ach test should be compared to a simi- 
lar test of normal urine. 
6. A 1 per cent aqueous solution of furfurol may be used instead of 
sugar, as the sugar and acid form fururol. It is used in the same manner as 
the sugar test, and one or two drops is usually sufficient. 
Try the bile solutions as above with this test. 
Tests for Bile Pigments. 
1. Gmelin’s Test— in a small evaporating dish place some bile solu- 
tion or suspected urine, and add a drop or two of fuming nitric acid; a play PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
41 
of colors, green, blue and violet results. In urine tests the green color is 
more important. 
a. A modification of this test may be used as follows: Filter the sus- 
pected urine and place a drop of fuming nitric acid on the filter. The rings of 
color form about the drop, changing through the colors, green, blue and 
purple. 
b. Another form of this test is to pour about 2 c. c. of fuming 
nitric acid in a test tube and gently’let an equal quantity of urine contain- 
ing bile, flow in upon it. The play of colors as above is seen at the surface. 
2. lodin Test. To about 4c.c. of the suspected urine add 2or3c. c, 
of a 1-10 solution of iodin in alcohol. In adding the iodin pour it gently 
down the side of the tube so as not to mix. At the junction of the two solu- 
tions a bright green ring forms. This test is recommended highly by some. 
GALL STONES. 
Calculi are usually composed pf cholesterin, and bilirubin, sometimes 
of nearly pure cholesterin. They vary in size from that of a grain of rice 
to an inch in diameter. There are sometimes few, and sometimes many. 
Over 7000 have been found in one gall bladder. Their color varies from a 
light gray to a black. The color depends upon the amount of bilirubin. 
This pigment is present, not in a pure state, but as the calcium salt. The 
structure is usually that of concentric layers around a nucleus. The calculi 
found in the gall bladder of cattle are usually composed of calcium biliru- 
bin. Gall stones of calcium carbonate and phosphate, sometimes found in 
animals, are very rarely found in man. 
Laboratory Work—Gall Stones. 
1. Pulverize and warm gently in a mixture of alcohol and ether. Filter 
and evaporate the filtrate to dryness. The cholesterin crystals may be 
examined by the microscope. To purify them, dissolve in alcohol and re- 
crystallize. Preserve for further examination. 
2. To the residue on the filter add HCI; if calcium carbonate is pres- 
ent effervescence will occur. If a residue, insoluble in HCI, remains, exam- 
ine for bile pigments. Evaporate that which dissolved in HCI, to dryness, 
ignite, take up in a little HCI and add ammonia; if a blue color is shown 
copper was present. 
3. Place some of the cholesterin crystals on a glass slide and cover 
with cover glass. Allow a drop of dilute sulfuric acid to flow under the 
cover glass. The cholesterin crystals show a bright red on edges, changing 
to blue. Warmth will hasten the reaction. 
4. To some cholesterin crystals on a slide add a drop of dilute sul- 
furic acid and then a drop of iodin solution. The crystals turn violet, 
bluish green and then blue. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
42 
5. In a perfectly dry test tube dissolve a few crystals in a little chloro- 
form, add an equal volume of sulfuric acid and shake. A blood red color 
appears which changes to cherry red and purple. 
To examine urine for cholesterin it is necessary to extract with ether, 
separate and evaporate slowly. The crystals may then be examined as 
above. 
BLOOD. 
A description of the physical and physiological properties is given in 
connection with the course in Physiology and Histology. In this depart- 
ment the examination of the blood by analytical processes and by the 
spectroscope, haemometer and haemocytometer will be undertaken, leaving 
to other departments a fuller discussion of blood in all its relations. 
The spectroscope consists of three tubes mounted on a stand and con- 
taining a prism of glass so placed at the center that light received through 
one of the tubes is refracted into the other and received by the eye placed 
at the eye piece of the telescope, which occupies one of the tubes. At the 
•end of the tube at which the light enters is a narrow slit capable of adjust- 
ment. The third tube contains a scale which is reflected on the prism by 
placing a lamp opposite its end. This scale enables any lines on the spec- 
trum to be definitely located. Place a fish tail burner opposite the slit and 
a continuous spectrum is observed. Place a platinum wire with a borax 
bead on it in the flame of the burner, and the location of the sodium line 
may readily be observed. Note its position on the scale. Then place the 
glass cell containing a dilute blood solution (1150) between the flame and the 
slit of the spectroscope. Two dark bands near each other* and the left one 
immediately to the right of the sodium line, may be observed. These are 
the absorption bands of oxyhaemoglobin. 
Spectroscopic Examination of Blood. 
2. To the blood in the cell add one or two drops of a solution made 
by dissolving two parts, ferrous sulfate and 3 parts tartaric acid in water 
and rendering alkaline with NH4OH. This solution, called Stoke’s solu- 
tion will reduce the oxyhaemoglobin and form reduced haemoglobin. The 
two bands disappear and are replaced by a single wide band of reduced 
haemoglobin, the edges of which are a little farther to the left than were the 
outer edges of the other two bands. 
3. To the contents of the cell now add a few drops of concentrated 
NaOH. The single absorption band of reduced haemoglobin gives way to 
two bands similar to those of oxyhaemoglobin, but further to the right. 
These are the absorption bands of haemochromogen. The left band is the 
darker of the two. Upon standing, the two bands merge into one broad 
•one. 
4. Empty and rinse the cell, then fill it fz full of a solution of blood PHYSIOLOGICAL, CHEMISTRY. 
43 
i part to 15. Observe the spectrum. It will be found to be entirely dark 
to the right of the sodium line. Dilute by adding water and gently stirring 
with a glass rod, until the spectrum of oxyhaemoglobin as first seen appears. 
The student will observe that the width and darkness of the bands depend 
upon the concentration. If the dilution is carried still further, the bands 
become still narrower and fainter, the right one fading out first. 
5. To the blood solution now add 1 or 2 drops of concentrated potas- 
sius ferricyanid solution. The color of the liquid changes to a brown. 
Observe the spectrum. There should be a dark band in the red and two 
dark bands to the right of the sodium line. If it is too concentrated, dilute. 
This is the spectrum of methaemoglobin. 
6. To about 10 c.c. of concentrated H2SO4 in a test tube add about 5 
drops of blood. Shake thoroughly after the addition of each drop of blood 
and keep the tube cool. What color has the solution? Examine the spec- 
trum. This spectrum is produced by haematoporphyrin (CieHisNoOs), and 
shows a band to the left and a dark band to the right of the left band of 
oxyhaemoglobin. 
7. Pass a current of CO through a dilute solution of blood (1-50). 
Examine the spectrum. Two bands similar to those of oxyhaemoglobin. 
but slightly farther to the right, appear. Add a few drops of fresh, strong 
potassium ferricyanid. It is not changed to methaemoglobin as the oxyhae- 
moglobin was in experiment 5. This shows that CO-haemoglobin is so stable 
as to be difficult to restore or change when the blood is once poisoned by 
this gas. 
1. Place some defibrinated blood on a piece of red litmus paper; wash 
it off after a few seconds. If not too much blood clings to the paper, the 
blue color of an alkaline reaction will be discernible. A glazed litmus paper 
is the best for this work. 
General Tests. 
2. Prepare a small plate of plaster of Paris, dry it and then saturate it 
with a neutral litmus solution. A drop of blood may be placed upon it, left 
for a short time and then washed away. The blue reaction will be shown. 
3. Take about 4 c.c. of water in a test tube, add two drops of blood 
and mix. Then add tincture of guiac until the liquid becomes cloudy. Pour 
a layer of old turpentine on the top and allow to stand. A blue color de- 
velopes at the line of contact. This reaction fails unless the turpentine is 
old. Hydrogen per oxid may be used to good advantage instead of tur- 
pentine. 
4. To about 2 c.c. of blood add an equal amount of hydrogen per 
oxid solution. The oxygen of the oxyhaemoglobin will be liberated and 
cause a violent effervescence. The hydrogen per oxid causes the haemo 
globin to give up its oxygen by catalytic action. 
5. To about 2 c.c. of diluted blood (1-5) add 2 c.c. of ether. Shake 
until the appearance of the blood is changed. This is called laky blood. 
The haemoglobin dissolves in the ether. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
44 
6. Heat for half an hour in a flask provided with a condensing tube, 
about 10 c.c. of glacial acetic acid. Then add gradually and by constant 
stirring 3 c.c. of defibrinated blood. Heat on the water bath for half an 
hour. Transfer to a small beaker and set aside over night. Examine for 
haemin crystals. Hsemin crystals are very small, oblique prisms and plates 
of a reddish brown color. 
7. Scrape dry blood stains from any object that may have them. Pul- 
verize and moisten with dilute salt solution. Place on a slide with a drop 
of glacial acetic acid and cover with cover-glass. Heat nearly to boiling 
for some time. Allow to cool and examine for hsemin crystals. In this 
way blood stains may be positively identified. Spectroscopic and micro- 
scopic examination may in legal cases supplement the hsemin crystal test. 
From a clot or an old bloodstain may be soaked in a very little salt solution 
and tested as above. 
8. From about 20 c.c. of defibrinated blood diluted with 200 c.c. of 
water is a beaker, precipitate the proteids and corpuscles by very slightly 
acidulting with acetic acid and boiling. Filter, concentrate by evaporation, 
to about 20 c.c. and filter again. Render alkaline and test some of this with 
Fehling’s solution for sugar. 
9. Acidulate with nitric acid another portion of the fluid obtained in 
experiment 8 and test with silver nitrate for NaCl. 
10. To a third portion add ammonia and magnesia mixture to test for 
phosphates. 
11. Evaporate the balance to dryness and examine with the micro- 
scope for NaCl crystals. 
THE NUMBER OF RED CORPUSCLES IN BLOOD. 
Thomas’haemacytometer maybe used to determine the number of blood 
corpuscles. In the normal blood of man there are about 5,000,000 blood 
corpuscles in a cubic millimeter. There is a somewhat greater number in 
the blood of men than in the blood of women. In certain pathological con- 
ditions, called anaemia, the blood is deficient in red corpuscles. 
Thomas’ haemacytometer consists of a mixing pipette and a glass slide 
with a small cell in the center, which has the bottom ruled into given 
spaces. A drop of blood obtained by pressing a shielded needle through 
the skin is drawn up into the pipette to the line marked 1. Then a solution 
of sodium sulfate with a specific gravity of 1.015 is drawn into the pipette 
to a line marked 101. Since the 1 volume in the capillary tube may be ex- 
pelled later unmixed, the mixture is now 1 per cent blood. By shaking the 
pipette the fluids become equally mixed and a drop, after expellingthe Na2- 
SO4 solution from the capillary tube, may be placed in the cell. A cover 
glass laid upon it will spread the blood uniformity over the bottom of the 
cell. Each square covers 1-400 of a millimeter. The slide is placed under PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
45 
a microscope and the corpuscles counted. The thickness of the blood layer 
is i-io of a millimeter. An average number obtained by counting 10 squares 
may be multiplied by 400x100, and the number of red corpuscles per cubic 
millimeter will be obtained. 
THE COLORING MATTER OF THE BLOOD. 
Whether the coloring matter of the blood is haemoglobin, or whether 
haemoglobin is a decomposition product is a disputed question; but no 
antecedent of haemoglobin has yet been separated. 
Haemoglobin is found in the red blood corpuscles and in striped mus- 
cle. It is composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, iron and sul- 
fur. Upon decomposition it yields albumin, small quantities of volatile fats 
and a coloring matter called haemochromogen. The haemochromogen 
upon oxidation yields haematin. The haemoglobin forms, while the blood 
is in the lungs, a loose compound with oxygen called oxyhaemoglobin, but 
when the blood reaches the tissue where oxygen is deficient, it is given off 
and is used by the tissues. The reduced haemoglobin is carried around in 
the circulation until the lungs are again reached when it repeats the process 
of absorbing oxygen. The blood in the arteries is rich in oxyhaemoglobin 
while that in the veins contains more reduced haemoglobin. 
Both haemoglobin and oxyhaemoglobin may be obtained in crystalline 
form, the latter more easily than the former. The crystals obtained from 
the blood of different animals differ in shape. There is considerable varia- 
tion in the amount of haemoglobin in the blood, it averages about 14 per 
cent. Various compounds and transformation products are yielded by 
haemoglobin, such as carbon monoxid-haemoglobin, methaemoglobin, 
pseudo-haemoglobin, haemochromogen, etc. 
THE AMOUNT OF HAEMOGLOBIN. 
Sometimes the lack of color in the blood is not due to a deficiency in 
the number of red corpuscles, but to a deficiency of haemoglobin. By com- 
paring the redness of the blood with a prepared scale of redness the per cent 
of haemoglobin may be closely approximated. This may be done with 
Fleischl’s haemometer. This instrument consists of a glass cell with a par- 
tition. In one side distilled water is placed; in the other a given quantity 
of a dilute solution of blood. By moving a glass wedge containing a grad- 
ually increasing amount of red coloring matter under the cell until the 
blood solution and glass are of the same intensity, a scale attached to the 
wedge gives the per cent of haemoglobin. The following instructions should 
be observed in making this test: 
The instrument should be adjusted in a dark, cool room with a lamp or 
gas light opposite the mirror, so that the light can be reflected up through PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
the cell. The colored wedge should be placed under the cell. 
One portion of the cell over the wedge should be filled with 
distilled water by means of a pipette, so that its surface is exactly 
even with the edge of the cell. The other portion of the cell into which the 
blood is to be placed, is filled about one fifth full of water and the pipette 
so placed that when the blood is measured, it can be conveniently washed 
into the cell. 
The measuring pipette may be slightly smeared with oil on the outside, 
to avoid the adhesion of the blood. A needle is used to pierce the skin of 
the ball of the finger, a drop pressed out and the measuring pipette filled 
by passing it horizontally into the drop. The outside may be cleaned by a 
cloth smeared lightly with oil, care being taken to have the blood exactly 
even with the ends of the pipette. Place the pipette in a horizontal position 
in that portion of the cell partly filled with water and allow the wire handle 
to rest on the edge of the cell opposite the partition. Move the cell gently 
through the water to wash out the blood and to mix it evenly through the 
water. The measurement and mixing of the blood with the water must be 
done so quickly that it does not coagulate. When the greater part of the 
blood is washed out of the pipette, place it in a vertical position over the 
center of the side containing the blood and allow water from a pipette to 
drop on the end until every trace of blood is washed into the cell. Great 
care should be taken that no drops spatter out. The blood is then mixed 
thoroughly with the water by means of a fine wire. The part of the cell 
containing the blood is then filled until the surface is exactly even. 
Avoid either a concave or a convex surface. Carefully mix with the fine 
wire. 
Place the eye directly over the cell and move the glass wedge until the 
color of the wedge is precisely like the color of the dilute blood solution. 
The light from the reflector should be stronger when the color of the blood 
solution is deeper. The eye and the surface of the fluid should be pro- 
tected from the light of the lamp, so that all the light may come through 
the wedge and fluids. The eye should not be tired by looking too steadily 
but should look at other objects occasionally. When the position of the 
wedge is reached in which an equal color is seen in both cells the reading 
of the scale gives the per cent of haemoglobin. 
BLOOD PLASMA. 
blood plasma is alkaline, yellowish in tint and has a specific gravity 
varying from 1.027 to 1.032. Besides extractive matters and inorganic salts 
it contains fibrinogen, serum albumin and serum globulin. The student should 
review what is given in these notes concerning these bodies under “Proteids.”' 
Blood serum is the fluid obtained after blood has been allowed to clot,, 
and contains the same substances as blood plasma, except that fibrin fer- PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMSTRY. 
ment is found in considerable abundance instead of fibrinogen. This fibrin 
ferment does not seem to exist in the blood in appreciable quantities until 
it is shed, or until some foreign substance is introduced into a vein or artery. 
Blood clots readily when shed into any except an oiled vessel and then it 
may be stirred by an oiled glass rod without clotting. Stirring with a glass 
rod which has not been oiled will cause clots to form on the rod. We may 
conclude that adhesion to a surface causes clotting, whether within or with- 
out the blood vessels. The fibrin ferment forms in the blood when the clot- 
ting occurs, but what its antecedent may be is not known. Indeed, the 
change of fibrinogen to fibrin is not understood. Fibrin ferment will cause 
coagulation of serous and hydrocele fluids. 
MILK. 
The average composition of cow’s milk as a result of many analyses is 
as follows: Water 87.4 per cent, fat 3.5 per cent sugar 4.5 per cent, pro- 
teids 3.9 per cent, salts 0.7 per cent. The total solids are given as 12.6 per 
cent. The proteids are casein, globulin and albumin. The sugar is lactose,, 
commonly called milk sugar. Recent and careful analysis of human milk 
gives the following; Water 87.81 per cent, fat 4.06 per cent sugar 5.26 per 
cent proteids 2.36 per cent salts .51 per cent. It will be noticed that 
human milk is richer in sugar and fats, but poorer in proteids. 
The specific gravity of mixed milk from a number of cows varies from 
1.029 to L 034. The reaction is usually alkaline or amphoteric. It may be 
acid, and is usually so in carnivorous animals. The acid character of milk 
which may be observed upon standing, is due to the formation of lactic acid 
by fermentation of lactose. The color of milk depends upon the floating 
particles of fat and the casein held in solution by calcium phosphate. Fresh 
milk will not curdle when heated, but after lactic acid formation begins, 
heat at once causes a curd to form. Sterilized milk will keep sweet indefi- 
nitely. When rennet is placed in milk a coagulum soon forms, if a calcium 
salt is present. As stated under proteids, caseinogen is present in milk and 
is broken up by coagulation into two proteids. The casein resulting from 
the separation reunites with calcium to form the curd, and a whey-proteid 
remains in solution. 
The scum which forms on fresh milk when heated is not a coagulated 
albumin, but a combination of calcium and casein. It will soon form again 
if removed. Casein was prepared under the subject of derived albumins. 
It is insoluble in water, but dissolves readily in alkalis. It may be precipi- 
tated by dilute acids, common salt or magnesium sulfate. 
The globulin of milk is probably identical with the serum globulin. 
The albumin is closely related to serum-albumin but is not identical. It dif- 
fers in coagulation, temperature, solubilities and specific rotary power. It 
is called lapt-albumin. The percentage of the different proteids are about PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
48 
as follows: Casein 3.19 per cent albumin 0.36 per cent globulin 0.15 per 
cent. (Schlossman.) 
The fat is present in globules which vary greatly in size. The source 
of the fat is not positively known. It may be brought by the blood or it 
may result from changed protoplasm. The lactose (milk sugar) is believed 
to be the result of a glandular action and may be derived, as casein is sup- 
posed to be, from a nucleo-albumin of the blood. It is fermented by yeast, 
but reduces Fehling’s solution. It may appear in the urine of women 
shortly before or sometimes after confinement. 
Laboratory Work.—Milk. 
1, Examine a drop of milk under the microscope 
3. To the milk used in experiment 2 add one drop of dilute acetic 
acid and continue heating. It coagulates. 
2. Boil about 5 c.c. of milk and test reaction with litmus paper. 
4. In each of 5 test tubes place 5 c.c. of fresh milk. To NO.l add % 
c.c. very dilute HCI; to No. 2 add % c.c. 1 per cent solution Na2CC>3 solu- 
tion; to No. 3 add % c.c. of saturated ammonium oxalate solution. Then to 
each one of the five add 2 drops of rennet solution and mix. Heat tube No. 
sto boiling and allow to cool to 40° C. Place the five tubes in a water bath 
at 40° and examine at intervals of 5 minutes. Tubes 1 and 4 soon coagu- 
late; the others do not. The coagulum in tube 1 is similar to that found in 
the stomach and contains para-casein and fat. The oxalate in tube 3 re- 
moves the calcium and prevents the formation of a coagulum. Compare 
with the action of an oxalate on blood. If CaCb be added to tube 3 and 
the heating continued, it will coagulate also. 
5. To some milk in water add tincture of guiac and old turpentine. 
Does it not give the same test as does blood? 
6. To 1 c.c. of milk add 4 c.c. of alcohol and shake. Notice the pre- 
cipitation of proteids. 
7. Measure out 10 c.c. of milk and dilute it with water to make 200 
c.c. Add 5 c.c. of a copper sulfate solution (Fehling’s No. 1) and then 
enough sodium hydroxid to give a voluminous precipitate. Shake and fil- 
ter, Test the filtrate for sugar by Fehling’s test. The sugar which causes 
the reaction in this case is lactose. 
8. Mix equal volumes of Millon’s reagent and milk in a test tube and 
boil. The bulky, reddish precipitate shows proteids. 
LAURENT’S POLARIMETER. 
This instrument is used to determine the specific rotary effect of sub- 
stances on light. Or if the specific rotary power of a substance is known, 
the strength of a solution of that substance may be determined. The spe- 
cific rotary power is shown by the degree of rotation produced by one gram PHYSIOIyC GICAE CHEMISTRY. 
49 
of a purified substance dissolved to form one c.c. of liquid and examined 
in a layer one decimeter thick. 
If a = the observed rotation, 
p = the weight in grams in i c.c. of the liquid, 
I = the length of tube in decimeters, 
A© = the specific rotary power for the sodium flame, 
a 
then Ad ' 
For dextrose the specific rotary power is about +s3°. Plus meaning 
rotation to the right and minus meaning rotation to the left. From the 
above formula the per cent of any sugar solution may be determined, if the 
specific rotary power is known. 
Experiment I. Place the instrument in a darkened room. Opposite 
the end containing the polarizing crystal, place a Bunsen burner and 
adjust a platinum wire containing some sodium salt, as borax or 
common salt, in the flame. A common lamp may be used. 
Draw out the eye piece until a clear field is visible upon looking 
through the instrument toward the light. Adjust the thumb screw con- 
nected to the tube containing the analyzer until the two halves of the field 
are of an equal shade. At the same time keep the zero mark of the circle 
opposite the zero mark of the vernier at the top of the circle. It is a good 
plan to have a tube filled with distilled water in place in the instrument 
when the adjustment is made. After the instrument has been adjusted re- 
move the distilled water and place in the instrument a tube containing a 
solution of dextrose (I—10). In filling the tube with a solution of any 
kind remove the cap and the glass plate over the end of the tube. Fill the 
tube so that a slightly convex surface is formed and slip the glass plate on 
so as not to inclose any air bubbles. When the solution of dextrose is 
placed in the instrument, it will be found that the field is not equally illum- 
inated. Turn the circle until the field has an equal shade. The reading 
indicates the amount of rotation produced by the solution. An average of 
several readings should be taken. As the dextrose ordinarily used is not 
pure, the per cent of pure dextrose may be calculated by the student, using 
the formula and specific rotary power for dextrose above given. 
Experiment 2. Fill a tube with a2O per cent solution of cane sugar 
and ascertain whether it rotates the plane of polarization to the right or to 
the left. 
To a 10 per cent solution of cane sugar in a beaker add 10 c.c. of con- 
centrated HCI, and warm to 70° for ten minutes. Cool and fill the tube. 
Avoid getting the acid solution on the brass part of the hibe. It will now be ob- 
served that the solution rotates to the left. Since the solution was diluted 
by HCI the reading must now be multiplied by l.i. The solution is called 
invert sugar. By this method the per cent of cane sugar can be determined 
even when other optically active substances are present. As this deter- 
mination is not often of clinical or dietetic importance, it need not be in- 
cluded here. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
50 
URINALYSIS. 
The analysis of urine is recognized by Osteopaths as a valuable aid in 
the diagnosis of disease, and the determination of its cause. 
The collection of urine fora whole day is sometimes important; when 
that is desired, reject the first urine excreted after rising in the morning 
and begin to collect from that time. Include that passed first on the fol- 
lowing morning. In this manner one will have a correct measure of the 
total amount of urine passed in 24 hours. When a small quantity only is 
desired, it should be collected three hours after a meal. 
Collection. 
Color. 
Normal urine is described as straw yellow, but may vary widely with- 
out great pathological significance. Its chief coloring matter is urobilin. 
Urine in various conditions may be almost colorless, reddish yellow, pale 
yellow, red, reddish brown, brown or dark brown. Its color has a signifi- 
cance in that it indicates the character of some constituents present, and in 
a measure, their quantity. It cannot be depended upon without additional 
examination. Light colored urine is apt to contain albumen or sugar; a red 
color may show urates, uric acid or blood;a green color maybe due to bile. 
Urine may be cloudy from pus, phosphates, bacteria, blood, epithelium, 
urates, oxalates and possibly other substances. The color of various con- 
stituents will be mentioned under the sections in which their determination 
is described. 
Odor. 
The odor may be due to decomposition going (on within the body, to 
putrid matter from an abcess in the urinary tract, or other cause. It is im- 
portant only when other tests confirm its indications. Certain medicines 
give a peculiar odor to urine. 
Reaction. 
Normal urine is ordinarily acid but may, when much vegetable food is 
eaten, be alkaline. Urine will sometimes give both acid and basic reactions 
with litmus paper; it is then called amphoteric. This condition has no 
pathological significance, but is due to acid and alkaline phosphates of 
sodium. Some hours after a hearty meal urine may become 'alkaline, but 
soon returns to its acid reaction. Urine always becomes alkaline by stand- 
ing, but the change may be delayed by antiseptics such as choroform or 
salicylic acid. 
The alkaline reaction of old urine is due to ammonium carbonate form- 
ed by the decomposition of urea. If bacteria are found in fresh urine and PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
51 
it also has an alkaline reaction, there are indications that decomposition is 
going on in the bladder. An abundance of rod-like bacteria indicate 
decomposition even though the reaction be still acid. Decomposition in 
the bladder may be caused by the use of a dirty catheter, or by diseased 
conditions. The alkalinity due to ammonia does not give a permanent col- 
or to litmus paper, but passes off in a few moments, which enables one to 
distinguish between volatile and fixed alkalis. 
Specific Gi'avity. 
The specific gravity varies in healthy urine from 1.005 to I-°3° may 
be even higher, when little-water is drank, or when prespiration is free. A 
high specific gravity and a large quantity is usually present in diabetes 
mellitusand though it may be due to medicines, it usually indicates disease. 
A very low specific gravity is also a matter for investigation. Some change 
in tissues preventing the proper elimination of urea or other normal ingre- 
dients in urine is probabty going on. In acute yellow atrophy of the liver, 
in structural diseases of the kidney and in conditions of mal-nutrition in 
general there is low specific gravity of urine. 
Gravity Test. 
The specific gravity is ascertained by placing some of the fluid to be 
tested in a glass cylinder. Remove any foam from the top with filter or 
other clean absorbing paper and place a clean, dry urinometer in the liquid. 
See that the urinometer floats freely and does not touch the sides of the 
cylinder. Place the eye on a level with the top of the liquid and read the 
markings on the urinometer at the lower surface of the meniscus. To cor- 
rect the reading for temperature add to it one thousandth for every three 
degrees Centigrade which the temperature is higher than the temperature 
at which the instrument is graduated. Urinometers are usually graduated at 
6o°F., i5.5°C, or 77OF., 25° C. 
Albumin may be temporarily found in the urine of healthy individuals, 
but only in very small quantities. This may occur after eating much egg 
albumin, or after some cause which produces alteration of blood pressure. 
Albumin. 
Albumin found frequently or in any considerable quantities is path- 
ological. 
(1.) It may indicate Bright’s Disease—an organic disease of the 
parenchyma of the kidneys. This is rendered almost certain when casts 
are found. The appearance of much albumin for weeks or months renders 
this disease very probable. 
(2.) a. When blood, blood plasma or pus is found in the urine it con- 
tains albumin. This indicates a local disease in the urinary tract. 
b. In rare cases albumin may be due to an abundant mixture of 
the spermatic fluid. 
Microscopic examination will reveal whether the cause be of this char- 
acter or not. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
52 
(3.) A hyperaemic condition of the kidneys, certain alterations in the 
blood due to insufficient nutrition on account of retarded metabolism, heart 
disease or high fevers causing sudden changes in blood pressure may pro- 
duce albumin in the urine. 
The necessity for microscopic examination of sediment in all cases 
where albumin is found is apparent from the above statement. 
Globulin is found in urine but its significance is the same as that of al- 
bumin and it responds to the tests given for of proteids. 
Albumose is also found in urine but has no certain pathological signifi- 
cance. 
Mucin may come from the vagina,but if from the urinary passages indi- 
cates an irritated or catarrhal condition. It is precipitated by acetic acid 
or a very little nitric acid, but is dissolved by excess of nitric acid. 
(1.) Filter, if turbid, and heat a portion of the clear fluid; if a precipi- 
tate forms it may be phosphates or albumin. Add one tenth of this vol- 
ume of nitric acid, this will dissolve phosphates but not albumin. Too lit- 
tle acid may dissolve the albumin forming acid albumin. Heat alone is 
insufficient, for there may be alkalis present which will form alkali-albumin- 
ates, If albumin is present it will form a cloudy precipitate. This is called 
the coagulation test. 
Tests for Albumin. 
(2.) Warm some nitric acid and pour it gently into the test tube con- 
taining the urine to be tested, so that it will glide along the side of the tube 
and sink to the bottom; a cloudy ring at the surface of the acid indicates 
albumin. This test is not entirely reliable as traces do not appear at once 
and, when cold, urates may form the ring. This test may be used in the cold 
but the phosphates should be precipitated and removed by heating with 
excess of alkalis. This is called the Heller test. 
(3.) The potassium ferrocyanid and acetic acid test is regarded as one 
of the most reliable. To the clear urine add acetic acid until reaction is 
strongly acid, then add a few drops of a fresh, clear potassium ferrocyanid 
solution (5 per cent). If a cloud of mucin appears upon addition of acetic 
acid, it should be filtered off before the ferrocyanid is added. This may be 
used to show the presence of mucin. 
This test may also be tried by adding a few c.c. of the potsssium ferro- 
cyanid solution to half a test tube full of clear urine, and after mixing 
thoroughly, by the addition of a few drops of acetic acid albumin is precip- 
itated. The ferrocyanid prevents the precipitation of mucin. 
The Mercuric Potassium lodid test is perhaps the most delicate. The re- 
agent is made by dissolving 33.12 grams of pure potassium iodid in 200 c.c. 
of distilled water and adding 13.54 grams of powdered mercuric chlorid. 
Warm and stir until the red precipitate of mercuric iodid disappears, leav- 
ing a clear solution. Dilute with distilled water to about 800 c.c. and add 
100 c.c. of strong acetic acid. Allow to stand over night, decant the clear 
liquid and dilute to 100 c c.c. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
53 
To the clear urine acidulated with acetic or hydrochloric acid add the 
reagent drop by drop, not to exceed five drops. A cloud of albumin will 
precipitate if any is present. One part in seventy-five thousand may be 
shown by this test. If the acid throws out a cloud of mucin it should be 
filtered off before the reagent is added. 
The Picric Acid Test. 
To the clear, suspected urine add not more than half the volume of a 
saturated solution of picric acid; a yellowish, flocculent precipitate indicates 
albumin. This test is not considered entirely reliable as urates, mucin and 
some other bodies may be precipitated. 
(i.) The gravimetric method is the only one that gives strictly accurate 
results. This is done by precipitating the albumin with a very little acetic 
acid and filtering on a weighed filter,washing first with distilled water, then 
with alcohol and finally with ether. The filter with the dry albumin is then 
weighed accuracy and the weight of the albumin equals the sum of the 
weights minus the filter. 
To Determine the Quantity of Albumin. 
This requires expensive balances and other apparatus, besides much 
time. 
(2.) Esbach's Method is much used for clinical purposes. Esbach’s so- 
lution is made by dissolving 10 g. of pure picric acid and 20 g. of pure citric 
acid in a liter of water. It is used as follows: Fill Esbach’s albuminom- 
eter to the line marked U with urine, add reagent to line marked R; mix 
thoroughly, stopper and allow to stand in a perpendicular position for 24 
hours. The per cent can then be read off on the scale which has been grad- 
uated experimentally and made to agree with the amount determined by 
gravimetric methods. 
(3.) Purdy's Method is to precipitate with acetic acid and potassium 
ferrocyanid and render compact by a certain rate of centrifugal motion; it 
is carried out as follows: Fill the percentage tubes to the 10 c.c. mark 
with urine to be tested, add 3y2 c.c. of 10 percent solution of potassium fer- 
rocyanid and 1 c.c. of acetic acid, mix thoroughly by closing the end 
and inverting repeatedly. Place the tube in the centrifuge and rotate until 
the urine is perfectly clear. Each one tenth c.c. represents one per cent, 
bulk measure, of albumin. 
Recent research has shown that sugar is present in traces in normal 
urine, but not in sufficient quantities to detect by the tests in common use; 
while these tests readily show it, when present in sufficient amounts to be 
of pathological importance. The continual presence of considerable quan- 
tities of grape sugar is known only in diabetes mellitus. The urine is then 
usually abundant and of high specific gravity. Sugar may be present tem- 
porarily and in small amounts from several causes not of a serious nature. 
Grape Sugar. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
54 
If albumen is present precipitate by adding 2 or 3 drops of acetic acid, heat 
and filter. 
Tests for Grape Sugar. 
(Moore's Test.) Render the urine strongly alkaline with sodium hydroxid 
and boil. It becomes first yellowish and then brown if sugar is present. 
Mucin gives this reaction to a certain extent and even normal urine be- 
comes somewhat darker. Traces of sugar will not be shown by this test. 
(2) Trammer's Test. Render the urine strongly alkaline by the addi- 
tion of as much of a sodium hydroxid solution as of urine to be tested; add 
a few drops (3 or 4to begin with) of a dilute solution of copper sulfate. 
Upon heating a precipitate of cuprous oxid is formed which varies in color 
from yellow to red, according to the heat, strength of solutions and amount 
of sugar. The presence of yellow, reddish-brown or red indicates sugar. 
If no yellow precipitate appears at first boiling, add a few drops more cop- 
per sulfate. A white or greenish-white precipitate may be due to phos- 
phates. A black precipitate does not indicate sugar. 
(3) Fehling's Test. To 4c. c. Fehling’s solution add equal volume of 
water and boil. The solution should remain clear. Add c. c. of urine 
and boil again. More than 1-10 of I per cent will cause the yellow color 
of cuprous oxid to appear. If none appears with tnat amount add several c. 
c. and boil. The yellowish precipitate turning reddish with more heat and 
upon standing indicates sugar. If the urine is acid render slightly alkaline 
before testing. A greenish-white precipitate may be formed by phosphates. 
Uric acid may cause a yellow coloring, and even a red precipitate, hence 
Boettger’s or Nylander’s test should be used to confirm this test and it will 
then be found to be the most serviceable of any given. 
Fehling’s solution will deteriorate when mixed and allowed to stand 
even for a few hours. To avoid this it may be prepared in two parts, as 
follows; 34.64 g. pure copper sulfate crystals dissolved in 500 c. c. distilled 
water makes the first part. For the second part, dissolve 175 g. of Roch- 
elle salts (potassium sodium tartrate) in about 200 c. c. pure water and 50 g. 
of sodium hydroxid in 200 c. c. of water. Combine these two solutions and 
make up to 500 c. c. with water. Place in separate bottles having perfor- 
ated rubber stoppers. Pipettes marked for equal amounts (about 2 c. c.) 
passing through the stoppers and provided with rubber caps will enable 
equal parts to be mixed at will, and yet preserve the solution indefinitely. 
In larger quantities equal parts may be mixed by graduated pipettes or 
burettes. 
(3) Maine's Test. Heat about 4c.c. of the prepared solution to boil- 
ing, add a few drops of urine and continue boiling for one half minute. If 
dextrose is present the reddish precipitate of cuprous oxid will appear. If 
it does hot appear, a few drops more of the urine might be added, but even a 
small amount is usually quickly shown by this test. The solution is pre- 
pared as follows; PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMSTRY. 
55 
Dissolve 10.94 g. recrystallized copper sulfate in 83 c. c. distilled 
water, add 83 c. c. pure glycerol, then add 834 c. c. of a 10 per cent solu- 
tion of potassium hydroxid. This solution is said to be so delicate that 6 
to 8 drops of suspected urine will give a yellow or yellowish red precipitate 
if sugar is present; and it is claimed that it will keep indefinitely. 
Some contend that the addition of the glycerol does not perfectly 
preserve the solution. 
(4) Boettger's Test. Render urine strongly alkaline with sodium hy- 
droxid, then add a very small quantity of basic bismuth nitrate (bismuth 
subnitrate), boil for 2 or 3 minutes. A black precipitate shows the pres- 
ence of sugar. This precipitate is probably lower oxids of bismuth. In 
absence of sugar the reagent remains white. Uric acid does not give the 
reaction with this test; for this reason it is suitable to use it to confirm Feh- 
ling’s test. Albumen causes the formation of sulfid of bismuth, a black 
precipitate, hence must be removed. 
(5) Nylanders Test. To 1 o volumes of urine add one volume of Ny- 
lander’s solution and boil 2or 3 minutes. The reaction is the same as that 
in Boettger’s test. 
Nylander’s solution is made by dissolving 10.33 g- sodium hydroxid in 
100 c. c. of water; add 2 g. basic bismuth nitrate and 4g. Rochelle salts; 
warm and filter. 
Fermentation Test. Mix a little yeast with a test tube full of urine, in- 
sert a stopper in which is a U tube of which the outer arm extends 2 inches 
toward the closed end of the tube. See that no air remains in the tube. 
Invert the test tube and place over night in a beaker in a warm place. If 
sugar is present it will be changed by fermentation into carbon di-oxid and 
alcohol. The carbon di-oxid will drive out the urine and its presence can 
be demonstrated by opening the tube under a solution of sodium hydroxid. 
This test is of value only in confirmation of other tests. 
Quantitative Determination of Sugar. 
Measure out in a flask 10 c. c. of Fehling’s solution, dilute it with four 
times its volume of water and heat to boiling. Drop into this hot fluid the 
urine from a burette one c. c. at a time until the blue color of the Fehling’s 
solution disappears; it may be necessary to let the precipitate settle or to 
filter off a portion, care being taken to return all the filtrate to the flask. 
The urine required to decolorize this amount of the diluted Fehling’s solu- 
tion contains approximately 50 m. g. of sugar. Calculate what per cent of 
sugar the urine solution contains. Dilute some of the urine until it will not 
contain over .5 percent of sugar and repeat the determination allowing less 
of the urine solution to drop into the Fehling’s solution at a time, as the 
point of decoloration is nearly reached. Three determinations which agree 
closely may be averaged to give a fairly correct estimation of the sugar. 
The Fehling’s solution should be kept hobwhile the determination is being 
made. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
56 
Laevulose, Lactose, bio site and Dextrin. 
Other sugars such as levulose, lactose, inosite (muscle sugar) and an 
animal gum termed dextrin are found in urine, but are of little pathological 
importance and are extremely difficult of detection. 
Acetone.—(CH3)2 CO—may occur in urine in considerable quantities in 
advanced stages of diabetes mellitus and in fevers. It is believed to be a 
decomposition product of albumin. Its detection in urine is diffcult and 
half a liter or more should be distilled after adding a little phosphoric acid. 
A few cubic centimeters of the first 100 c. c. of the distilled liquid may be 
used for the following test: 
Lieben's Test. To 6orBc. c. in a test tube add a few drops of a solu- 
tion of iodin in potassium iodid; then add enough sodium hydroxid to 
make alkaline—iodoform crystals separate out and may be recognized 
uuder the microscope by their six-sided plates or star-shaped crystals. 
Bile Pigment. 
The bile pigments are found in the urine in jaundice and especially 
when the bile ducts are closed by some obstruction. Certain changes in the 
blood and hemorrhage into the tissues are followed by the occurrence of 
biliary pigments in the urine. In cases of phosphorus poisoning this con- 
dition of the urine is very marked. When urine contains much bile pig- 
ment it is colored yellow, yellowish-brown, brown, greenish-yellow, or 
greenish-brown. 
Tests. Filter some of the urine through a white filter. Upon the filter 
place a drop of fuming nitric acid; a pale yellow spot will be formed, sur- 
rounded by rings of yellowish red, violet, blue and green. 
Gmelins Test. Upon 4orsc, c. of fuming nitric acid in a test tube pour 
an equal volume of urine so that they will not mix. A band of green will 
form at the junction of the liquid, due to the biliverdin of the bile. Blue, 
violet and red rings may also appear, but the green is most characteristic. 
A modification of this test is to mix sodium nitrate with the urine and 
add sulfuric acid to set free the nitrous oxid which gives the characteristic 
rings with the bile. 
These occur in urine in so-called bilious attacks, in jaundice, in atrophy 
of the liver; in increased temperature in fevers, in anaemia, in splenic 
leucocythaemia and scurvy. 
Bile Acids. 
Pettenkoffer's Test. 
To recognize the bile acids take 5 c. c. of the urine, add slowly, so that 
it will flow to the bottom unmixed, half as much concentrated sulfuric acid, 
then 2 or 3 drops of cane sugar solution and agitate it gently by tapping 
the tube with the finger until the sugar solution reaches the upper surface 
of the acid; if bile is present a color which may vary from pink to purple 
appears. It is sometimes a magenta. Only experience in observing the 
color will enable one to recognize it. Avoid excess of the sugar solution, PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
5 7 
but enough must be used to produce the furfurol necessary to combine 
with the bile acid to give the color to be recognized. 
This test can be relied upon with certainty in highly colored urine, 
only when the bile acids have been extracted with ordinary alcohol, then 
with absolute alcohol and after evaporation taken up with water and pre- 
cipitated as lead salts with lead acetate. They must be again extracted 
with hot alcohol, filtered, sodium carbonate added, evaporated again and 
finally taken up with water to be tested as above. 
Phosphates. 
In normal urine the calcium, magnesium, and sodium salts of phosphoric 
acid occur. Ordinarily the acid salts are present as NaH-iPCb, 
and MgH4(PO4)‘2 and the acid reaction of the first of these gives to the 
urine its reaction. When urine is acid all phosphates are held in solution. 
Upon standing it begins to decompose and becomes alkaline whereupon the 
calcium and magnesium phosphates are precipitated. Triple phosphate, 
(ammonium magnesium phosphate) is often found in alkaline urine. If 
found, in recent urine, it indicates decomposition within the bladder, and 
is liable to lead to phosphatic calculi. 
Phosphates are increased in rickets, meningitis, disorders of the brain, 
great nervous strain and phosphatic diabetes. 
Phosphates are apt to be diminished where there is diminished nutri- 
tion; in gout, in any structural disease of the kidneys, as dropsy, in acute 
diseases, as fevers, and during pregnancy. A diminution of phosphates is 
regarded as constant a symptom of Bright’s Disease as is the presence of 
albumin itself. 
Any single determination may be misleading, so much depends upon 
the food of the patient. Twenty-four hours urine should be mixed to se- 
cure a sample for the determination of phosphates. Pixcessive or very 
scanty amount of phosphates indicates some of the above maladies. The 
amount of phosphoric acid in normal urine varies somewhat. One author 
gives an average of 2g. in 24 hours; another gives 2.7 g. as an average of 
many determinations. 
Tests For Phosphates. 
To some urine in a test tube add a few drops of magnesia mixture; the 
phosphates will be precipitated in a white cloud. By comparing some 
normal urine with the suspected, one can soon be able to detect any un- 
usual excess or deficiency. 
Magnesia mixture is made by dissolving 100 g. magnesium sulfate and 
100 g. of ammonium chlorid in 800 c. c. of water; then add idoc. c. of 
strong ammonia water; let stand 24 hours and filter. 
The earthy phosphates may be distinguished from the alkaline by add- 
ing ammonia and boiling; this precipitates the former. Filter these off and 
add magnesia mixture which will precipitate the latter. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
58 
Deterni in a tio n of Total Phosphoric Acid. 
This is made by titrating with uranium nitrate or acetate. If the for- 
mer is used sodium acetate must be added to the urine to prevent the for- 
mation of nitric acid. 
Uranium acetate solution is prepared as follows: Dissolve 35 g. of 
crystallized uranium acetate in a liter of water and standardize against a so- 
lution of sodium mon-acid phosphate—10.085 g- pure crystals to one liter 
of water—until one c. c.of this solution equals 5 m. g. of P2 05. 
To 5 c. c. of the urine add 50 c. c. of acetic acid, and run into it—drop 
by drop—the standardized solution of uranium acetate. Place several 
drops of the potassium ferrocyanid solution on a porcelain plate and from 
time to time put a drop of the urine upon one of these. When all the phos- 
phates are precipitated the least addition of uranium acetate will cause a 
reddish brown color with the potassium ferrocyanid. For every c. c. of 
the solution, there were sm. g. of P2 Os. The amount in 24 hours urine 
can then be calculated. 
There are two kinds of sulfates present in the urine. (1) The ordin- 
ary neutral sulfates of sodium and potassium, and (2) etheral sulfates. 
In quantity they vary from 1.5 g. to 3 g. per day and are increased or di- 
minished parallel to urea. 
Sulfates. 
Tests. 
To a sample of urine add acetic acid and barium chlorid solution; the 
ordinary sulfates will be precipitated. Filter,and to the filtrate add onec.c. 
of concentrated hydrochloric acid,then boil a few minutes; this will decom- 
pose the ethereal sulfates and they may be precipitated with the barium 
chlorid already present; if enough is not present, some more may be added. 
Determination. 
The most satisfactory method of estimation is to precipitate as above, 
filter, burn filter in platinum crucible and weigh. They may also be titrat- 
ed with a standard solution of barium chlorid and when no more precipi- 
tate forms, the volume of standard solution is measured and the corres- 
ponding amount of SO3 calculated. 
Chlorids. 
The amount of chlorids in urine varies from log. to Isg. with ordinary 
food. With salt food it may be as high as 25g. daily. Any conclusion 
based upon variation in amount of chlorids can be reached only by a con- 
sideration of the food and habits. There is an increase in diabetes insipidus 
and temporarily in some fevers. 
A decrease may be noted in some febrile disorders. The serous accu- 
mulations of pleurisy diminish salt in the urine, and in some cases it nearly 
ceases. A return of chlorids toward normal amounts would be a favorable 
indication. 
Tests. Silver nitrate solution will form a white precipitate with chlorids, PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
59 
and its density will enable one to form an idea of scantiness or abundance. 
Determination. A standard silver nitrate solution made by dissolving 
29-°7sg- °f pure fused silver nitrate in one liter of water and standardizing 
against sodium chlorid solution. Each c.c. equals lomg. of sodium chlorid. 
Place 10 c.c. of urine, neutral or slightly acid, in an evaporatingdish, add 
about 100 c.c of water and two or three drops of potassium chromate solu- 
tion. Let the silver nitrate solution run in slowly from a burette; when the 
chloridsare neutralized, the reddish-brown color of silver chromate appears. 
If the urine is highly colored I c.c. of the standard solution must be deduct- 
ed before calculating the amount of NaCl. This is called Mohr’s method. 
Urea. C ON> H\. 
Urea is a normal constituent of the urine and is one of the chief forms 
in which the nitrogenous parts of the food are excreted. It is excreted in 
variable quantities, but averages in males from 30 to 40 grams per 24 hours. 
In women and children the total amount excreted is less, but relatively is 
more in children. 
The amount of urea excreted may be regarded as a measure of the 
metabolism, where no structural disease of kidneys or liver exists. In fevers 
it is increased until the decline of the fever begins. It is probable that it is 
prepared in the liver as acute atrophy or other disease of that organ seems 
to prevent its formation. Structural degeneration of the kidneys prevents 
its elimination from the blood. Uraemia is preceded by a decreased elimin- 
ation of urea and indications of its liability may be had in advance from de- 
terminations. 
Urea is increased in diabetes; habits of exercise, amount and kind of 
food and even atmospheric changes may affect the amount of urea excreted, 
hence caution is necessary in drawing conclusions from analyses. 
Tests. The presence of urea in excess may be shown as follows; Place 
a drop of urine on a glass slide and add a drop of nitric acid, leave in a cool 
place. If within 5 minutes an abundant crop of crystals of nitrate of urea 
appear, urea is in excess. Evaporate some urine to half its bulk. Take a 
drop and proceed as in excess. If no crystals are formed in five minutes 
there is a deficiency of iirea. 
Determination of Urea. The percentage of urea is determined by titrat- 
ing with a mercuric nitrate solution, (Liebig’s method.) Dissolve 77.2g. 
dry mercuric oxid (or 7i.48g. pure mercury) in nitric acid and evaporate to 
drive off excess of acid, take up in water and dilute to one liter. Prepare 
a baryta mixture by combining one volume of cold saturated barium nitrate 
with two volumes of a cold saturated solution of barium hydroxid. Prepare 
also a solution of sodium carbonate, s3g. to the liter. 
To 40 c.c. of the urine add 20 c.c. of the baryta mixture, mix well and 
filter. Take 15 c.c. of the filtrate in a beaker or flask and pas= into it from 
a burette the murcuric nitrate solution. When the urea is no longer present PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
a drop of urine containing an excess of the mercuric nitrate will form a yel- 
low color with a drop of the sodic carbonate placed on a porcelain plate. 
Each c.c. of the mercuric nitrate solution represents lOmg. of urea. If 
albumen is present it should be coagulated and filtered out. 
A deduction of ig. of urea should be made for every i-3g. of sodium 
chlorid in the urine. If one titration reveals more than 2 per cent of urea 
it must be diluted below 2 per cent. 
Doremus' Method. Fill a Doremus apparatus with hypo-bromite 
solution until tube and bulb are full. Through a curved, gradu- 
ated pipette introduce I c.c. urine solution; nitrogen gas is liber- 
ated and rises to the top of the tube, where the reading of its volume 
indicates the per cent, of urea. Smith’s and Squibb’s apparatuses are more 
accurate and depend upon the same principle. They will be shown and the 
determinations orally described. The hypobromite solution is made by 
adding 25 c.c. bromin to a solution of IOOg. of,sodium hydroxid in 250 c.c. 
of distilled water. The solution does not keep well and the sodium hydroxid 
solution can be used 10 c.c. at a time and 1 c.c. of bromin added when it is 
to be used. The bromin should be introduced beneath the surface of the 
sodium hydroxid solution, and only a little at a time added, as the reaction 
developes considerable heat. 
Uric acid like urea is a nitrogenous product. In quantity, compared 
with urea, it is usually present in about the ratio of Ito 50. It varies much 
in quantity. It is supposed to decrease in gout and other diseases where it 
is found in the blood, but an increase or decrease has little clinical signifi- 
cance, or rather is not well understood. It is not usually present as free 
acid but combined with the alkali bases as urates. If the urates contain 
but one atom of the metal they are acid; if both hydrogen atoms of the acid 
are replaced it is alkaline. 
Uric Acid. G:tH\N\Oi. 
The origin of uric acid is much disputed. There are three theories: (1) 
That it is formed in the kidneys. (2) That it is formed in the liver. (3) 
That it results from the decomposition of the nuclei of nucleated cells and 
is formed wherever the disintegration of these cells goes on. 
Tests. Uric acid crystals are easily recognized by their reddish-brown 
color, their large size and characteristic shapes. Their presence may not 
indicate an excess of urea but a condition of acidity, anddeficiency of other 
salts in the urine. 
Besides the microscopic examination the murexid test may be used. 
Place the precipitate in an evaporating dish, put a drop of nitric acid on it 
and evaporate to dryness; a drop of ammonia gives a purple color. 
Determination. To 200 c.c. of urine add 10 c.c. of HCI. Allow to stand 
48 hours in a cool room. Filter on a weighed filter, wash the precipitate 
with cold water acidulated with HCI, dry and weigh. Add o.ooqSg. for 
every 100 c.c. of filtrate and wash water. If albumen is present it must be PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 01 
removed. If urates are not all in solution they must be first dissolved by 
heating or by sodium hydrolid. 
Eh? licit's Diazo-reaction. 
An unknown substance found in the urine in typhoid fever, small pox, 
tubuculosis, typhus and scarlet fever gives what is known as the diazo reac- 
tion. When this reaction is first given in tuberculosis it is considered 
an unfavorable indication and when it ceases in typhoid fever it is consid- 
ered favorable. It is therefore of prognostic value and may aid in diag- 
nosis. 
The solution is made in two parts as follows: 
(a) Dissolve sg. sulfanilic acid in 50 c.c. of HCI and 1000 c.c. of 
water. 
(b) Make a 0.5 per cent, solution of sodium nitrite. 
Before using mix one part of b with 50 parts of a. The nitrite solution 
is liable to oxidation and can not be kept long. To the urine to be tested 
add equal volume of the mixed reagent and then add an excess of ammonia. 
A carmine red color which on shakidg reddens the foam, is an evidence of 
the diazo-reaction. Normal urine gives a red or orange, but not the deep 
red of this reaction. 
Eht licit's THazo-reaction. 
SEDIMENT IN URINE- 
When fresh urine is allowed to stand for a few minutes a sediment will 
sometimes begin to settle to the bottom and should be examined by the 
microscope for pathological constituents. Generally, however, urine is clear 
and sediment forms only upon longer standing. All urine will decompose, 
if allowed to remain in a vessel for a day or two. 
Collection of Sediment. The sediment may be collected by allowing 
urine, with two or three drops of chloroform added to prevent decomposi- 
tion, to stand for a few hours; it may be removed by a pippette from the 
bottom of the vessel and placed upon a slide. 
A better method of obtaining the sediment is to rotate it in acentrifru- 
gal machine at a rate of from 1000 to 1500 revolutions per minute. 
Kind of Sediment The sediments usually found in urine are commonly 
divided into two classes, organized and unorganized. 
Organized Sediment. This may consist of blood corpuscles, pus cor- 
puscles, mucus, epithelium , casts of uriniferous tubules, spermatozoa o 
bacteria 
Unorganized Sediment. May be uric acid, urates of the alkali metals, 
eucin, tyrosin, cystin, cholesterin, fat globules, hippuric acid, calcium car- 
bonate, calcium phosphate, calcium oxalate or magnesium ammonium 
(triple) phosphate. 
Significance and Recognition of Sediments. 
Blood Corpuscles.—Signifieance. The presence of blood in the urine is 
called hiematuria, and is always an indication of a pathological condition. 
When the urine contains very muchblood, it usually comes from the pelvis of 
the kidneys, ureters or the bladder, and not from the kidneys themselves. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
61a 
When the blood comes from the kidneys, as it does in acute Bright’s disease, 
renal calculi, malignant growths in the kidneys, traumatism, etc., the blood 
is usually nearly equally distributed, or in slender, rod-like clots showing 
that they have been moulded in passing through the ureters. There is 
more or less pus with the blood in cases of renal calculi. In haematuria of 
vesical origin the urine is usually alkaline in reaction and phosphates are 
apt to be present in the sediment. In haematuria from the urethra the blood 
precedes the urine. 
Blood Corpuscles.—Identification. Blood usually causes a reddish color, 
which one may soon learn to recognize. The microscopic examination is 
the surest and most convenient method for the detection of blood. The 
corpuscles are bi-concave disks of a yellowish color and with a smooth 
margin. Upon standing in water or solution of salts the shape is changed. 
The white corpuscles are larger and have a finely granular appearance. 
When blood is placed in water the corpuscles may rapidly change shape 
and have very irregular margins called crenated. 
Pits. 
The occurrence of pus in the urine is called pyuria. It is found in a 
wide range of pathological conditions. 
When pus originates from the kidneys the urine is ap,. to retain its normal 
acidity. Round epithelium and casts may be abundant, and if this is the 
case the real origin is quite certain. There are several different lesions of 
the kidneys in which pus may be formed, such as cancer, tuberculosis, neph- 
ritic abcess and renal calculi. 
When the origin of the pus is in the bladder the urine is apt to be am- 
moniacal and contain triple phosphates. Any disease of the bladder may 
occasion it. Calculi, ulcers, tuberculosis and cancer may be mentioned 
among the possible diseases of this organ. 
Suppuration in the ureters is apt to be accompanied by slight colicky 
pains along their course. 
If the pus is in the urethra, it will pass in the first urine and the last of 
the passage will be free from pus. This occurs in gonorrhoeal and other 
diseased conditions. 
An increase, or a considerable quantity maintained for some time, may 
be a serious indication. The pus corpuscles from deep seated suppurations 
are apt to be irregular in contour, while in more superficial disorders the 
pus is normal, 
Pus Coypuscles—ldentification. 
The white corpuscles of the blood, the corpuscles of mucus and the 
pus corpuscles are identical in structure and form. Their number in blood 
and mucus in much less and by this means one may distinguish between 
these three. The test with acetic acid for albumin may show the presence 
of mucus. 
The addition of acetic acid will cause the nuclei of the pus corpuscles 
to become distinct. There are usually two or three nuclei. Sodium 
hydroxid added to a sediment of pus will break up the corpuscles and form PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
62 
a gelatinous fluid the gelatinous character of the fluid maybe seen by pour- 
ing from one test tube to another. This may be used as a test for pus. 
Ephithelium. 
Normal urine contains some epithelium and therefore it has a path- 
ological signification only when present in considerable quantities. 
The shape of the epithelial cells does not indicate with certainty the 
portion of the urinary tract from whence they came. 
In general, a very large number of the small, round epithelial cells 
point to the kidneys as the origin. If the cells be mostly of the large, flat 
kind it may be supposed that the bladder is involved, although the other 
kinds of cells may come from the deeper epithelial layers of the bladder. 
Casts. 
Urinary casts are little plugs of proteid matter which are deposited in the 
tubules of the kidneys and afterward carried out in the urine. They are 
not composed of precisely the same constituents as any other proteid of 
the body. They are very certain evidence of the destruction of the tissue 
of the kidneys. The basis of the proteid matter may enclose other ma- 
terials giving different appearances to the casts so that they may be di- 
vided into several kinds such as; 
(1) Those consisting of anatomical elements—blood, pus or epithelium. 
(2) Those consisting of products of anatomical substances, waxy, granu- 
lar or fatty cats. 
(3) Those termed “hyaline.” These are clean, transparent casts, the na- 
ture of which is still a disputed question. 
Epithelial casts may be indications of only a temporary desquamation 
and if they disappear in a few days allow a favorable prognosis. Granular 
and hyaline casts indicate a graver disease of the parenchyma of the kid- 
ney usually becoming chronic. The greater the number and the larger their 
size the more unfavorable the prognosis. Fatty and waxy casts usually 
indicate fatty degeneration and are the most serious indication of any. 
Casts—l den tification. 
A complete description of these kinds is not necessary, for the shape 
is their chief means of identification. They are tubular and their charac- 
teristic property is indicated by their name. Care should be taken to become 
familiar with cotton, linen and silk fibers, so as to avoid confusing them 
with casts. It sometimes happens that masses of urates or phosphates may 
lie in shapes similar to casts. The solubility of urates and phosphates will 
distinguish the one from the other. 
Bacteria. 
A large variety of bacteria may be found in urine, but their identifica- 
tion would require too much time and would involve a special course in 
bacteriology. It will be sufficient for our purposes to know that minute, 
rod-like or spherical bodies, which are to be seen, especially in old urine, 
are bacteria. Their presence in recent urine indicates decomposition with- PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMSTRY. 
63 
in the bladder. They may be in motion. They are not dissolved in acids 
as any minute crystals would be. 
The crystals or amorphous deposits which are frequently found in 
urine are important indications of changes which are occurring in the meta- 
bolism of the body or of changes in the urine before or after its passage. 
Unorganized Sediment. 
Uric acid occurs in acid urine. It is found most frequently in acute 
fevers and inflammations. It may occur also in cases of defective action of 
the liver, or in errors of diet, and is often accompanied by headache, emaci- 
ation and hypochondriasis. It frequently occurs in early stages of inter- 
stitial nephritis. 
Uric Acid. 
It is due (1) to excess of acids, (2) to excess of uric acid, (3) to defici- 
ency of bases, (4) or to deficiency of water. If uric acid crystals are pres- 
ent in urine when passed there is danger of formation of uric acid calculi. 
The crystals of uric acid vary greatly in form, but the most common 
shape is that of a rhombic prism. They are of yellowish, orange or red- 
dish color and are usually large in size. 
Uric Acid Crystals—Identification. 
Uric acid dissolves readily in alkalis but is insoluble in hydrochloric 
acid. 
Urates are deposited most frequently in fevers, as is uric acid. Dis- 
eases of the viscera, liver and functional disorders of the stomach are fre- 
quently associated with the deposit of urates in the urine. 
Urates of Sodium, Potassium and Ammonium. 
Urates—Identification. 
The urates may occur in little, spherical masses, or in crystalline forms 
of star-shaped, needle-like clusters. It is needless to distinguish the bases 
of the urates, as the clinical significance is in each case the same. The pe- 
culiar spherical masses, usually more or less colored, sometimes with spic- 
ules projecting from the spherules, are usually recognizable as ammonium 
urates. Ammonium urate is found in alkaline urine, the potassium and 
sodium in acid. 
By gently heating the urine the urates readily dissolve, but they do not 
dissolve in weak acids. 
Urates and uric acid givedhe murexid test. To some sediment contain- 
ing urates in an evaporating dish add a few drops of nitric acid and evapo- 
rate to dryness; then add a drop of ammonia and a beautiful purple will 
appear. 
Crystals of calcium oxalate appear in the urine in a great variety of 
conditions. Beneke sums them up as follows: 
Calcium Oxalate. 
(1) In impeded metamorphosis in which the oxalic acid is not oxid~ 
ized into carbonic acid. This may be the case in several forms of illness. 64 
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHKMISTRY. 
(2) When the nitrogen containing foods are imperfectly changed and 
more oxalic acid is formed than usual. 
(3) Excessive use of proteids, saccharine or starchy foods; insuffici- 
ency of red blood corpuscles; insufficient pure air; organic lesions which 
impede respiration or circulation; depressed conditions of the nervous 
system. 
(4) Excess of alkaline bases in the blood 
Calcium Oxalate Crystals—Identification. 
These crystals are usually recognized by their peculiar shape and 
markings. They appear to be small square plates with light diagonals, or 
else they resemble minute dumb bells. The former crystals are in reality 
highly refractive octahedra. Calcium oxalate dissolves in hydrochloric 
but not in acetic acid. 
Phosphates. 
Ammonium magnesium phosphates (triple phosphates) are found in 
urine with ammoniacal reaction; calcium phosphate is found under a simi- 
lar condition either in amorphous or, less commonly, in crystalline form. 
They indicate important modifications of the ordinary changes occurring in 
the blood or the urine. If the reaction is from a fixed alkali, the deposit is 
chiefly calcium phosphate. The urine is then of a high specific gravity, 
cloudy, and effervesces with acids. This condition may be temporary and 
have little significance, or it may be more permanent. General debility, 
anaemia, defective nutrition, etc., are conditions which are apt to be accom- 
panied by alkaline urine and a deposit of phosphates. These conditions 
occur after long or exhausting illnes. Flatulent dyspepsia is often a cause 
of phosphate deposits in urine. There may be excessive elimination of 
phosphates in nervous irritability, dyspepsia and emaciation. The triple 
phosphate crystals are chiefly found in ammoniacal urine and are due to 
c> stitis or pyelitis if they occur in the urine when it is voided. 
Phosphatic Sediment—Identification. 
The triple phosphates occur chiefly in prismatic crystals of which the 
so-called “coffin lid” crystals are common. These deposits also occur in 
leaf-like form. Both kinds of crystals are soluble in acetic acid, but not in 
ammonia. 
The calcium phosphate is rarely in crystals, generally in amorphous 
masses which may be identified by solubility in acetic acid. 
In fatty degeneration of the kidneys, in some cases of diabetes mellitus, 
in chronic parenchymatous nephritis and in phosphorus poisoning, fat glob- 
ules may be found in the urine. 
Fat Globules— (Lipuria). 
Fat in the urine is a physiological condition in pregnant women. Oil 
has been found in urine in heart disease. Lipuria has been reported after 
administration of cod liver oil. In diseases of the pancreas oil has been 
noted’ PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
65 
The highly refractive globules have smooth edges and great irregular- 
ity in size. They are easily recognized with a little practice. 
Fat Globules—ldentification. 
Fat crystals sometimes appear as bundles of fine needles which disap- 
pear upon slightly warming. 
Cvstin. 
Cystinuria has not yet been positively associated with any definite path- 
ological condition. Chlorotic females and scrofulous children seem prone 
to cystinuria. It has also been found associated with liver diseases. In 
some families it is apt to form calculi. 
Cystin—Identification. 
It is found in colorless, six-sided plates, insoluble in boiling water, 
acetic acid, alcohol and ether. It is distinguished from uric acid or cal- 
cium oxalate by its solubility in oxalic or hydrochloric acids; from triple 
phosphates by its solubility in acetic acid. 
These substances occur together in the urine in phosphorus poisoning, 
in acute yellow atrophy of the liver and in extensive suppuration, in gan- 
grene, in leucocythaemia, typhoid and small pox. 
Leucin and Tyro sin. 
Leucin and Tyro sin—Identification. 
Place the urine to be tested in a watch glass, evaporate one half and al- 
low to cool; leucin and tyrosin, if present, will crystallize out, the former 
in round masses with fine radiating striae, the latter in fine bundles of 
needles. 66 
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
POISONS. 
Introduction. 
A poison is somewhat differently defined by writers on the subject, but 
there seems to be no legal definition. 
Any substance which when introduced into the body acts in a noxious 
manner by means not mechanical, tending to cause death or injury to 
health, is regarded as a poison. 
The introduction into the body may be by absorption either through 
the pores of the skin, or through the walls of the alimentary tract. 
Poisons may be classified according to their physiological action in 
various ways; that followed by Draper is simple and practical. He divides 
them into Corrosive, Irritant and Neurotic. 
Glassification of Poisons. 
Corrosive Poisons are those which are destructive of tissue, such as the 
strong mineral acids, the alkalies and some mineral salts, silver nitrate and 
corrosive sublimate. Carbolic acid is also a corrosive. 
Irritant Poisons are those which produce an inflamed condition of the 
parts directly affected. Among those may be mentioned arsenic,antimony, 
phosphorus, cantharides, ergot, copper, mercury, zinc, lead and other com- 
pounds. 
Neiiiotic Poisons may be defined as those which, after absorbtion, act on 
the nervous system and injuriously affect the respiration, circulation or 
other processes of the body. 
Some poisons which belong to the first two classes have neurotic ef- 
fects also, while the destruction of tissue or irritation produced by the 
first two may affect the sympathetic system so that grave results follow, 
unless attention is directed to the condition of the nervous system as well 
as to the local treatment. 
Purposes of Treatment. 
Antidotes are used for three purposes: First to get the poisons out 
of the bod)G as by vomiting. The stomach pump may be used for this 
purpose. Second to neutralize or render inactive what may not be re- 
moved. Third to combat any dangerous symptoms that ma}' have arisen; 
by stimulating the free action of the bowles or kidneys; by exciting res- 
piration; by preventing convulsive nervous action or by arousing from the 
deadly stupor caused by some poisons. 
To remove poisons from the stomach by vomiting or stomach pump is 
dangerous if the lining of the mouth, pharynx and oesophagus is much 
corroded;and as most of the corrosive poisons may be rendered harmless 
it is rarely necessary to use emetics or stomach pump in such cases. When PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
the poison is not highly corrosive, vomiting maybe caused by tickling the 
fauces; or, if that is not successful any of the following emetics may be 
used: Sulphate of zinc, 20 to 30 grain doses; powdered Ipecac, 20 to 30 
grain doses; apomorphine,i-20 1-10 grain doses. Apomorphine may be in- 
jected into the blood in 1-60 grain doses. In case none of these are a 
hand, a teaspoonful of mustard in a cup of warm water may be given; if it 
does not act promptly the dose maybe repeated at intervals of 15 minutes. 
Many acids may be rendered inert by the use of any harmless alkali, 
as magnesia, precipitated chalk, common soda, lime water or even soap 
suds or wall plaster. Some compounds, however, must be rendered inso- 
luble to save the patient, as the neutral salts may be as poisonous as the 
compound itself. So that in most cases a knowledge of the reactions of 
each element is necessaty to enable one to remember the proper antidote. 
To counteract the effects may be illustrated by the treatment for 
opium poisoning. The patient is aroused by stimulation; is kept in mo- 
tion; is excited to exertion in keeping off the dangerous stupor produced 
by the drug. 
For the purpose of better understanding and remembering the treat- 
ment, a classification partly chemical and partly physiological is usually 
followed. 
MINERAL ACIDS. 
When concentrated, the mineral acids, sulfuric (oil of vitrol,) nitric 
(aqua fortis,) hydrochloric (muriatic,) corrode the skin and flesh rapidly; 
destroy cloth or leave red stains; have an intensely sour taste and turn 
litmus paper red. Dilute acids posess these properties in a less degree. 
Tests. 
Sulfuric acid gives a white precipitate with barium chlorid solution, 
insoluble in acids; and with lead nitrate it also gives an insoluble precipi- 
tate. 
Hydrochloric acid gives with silver nitrate solution a white precipitate 
insoluble in nitric acid, but soluble in ammonia. 
Nitric acid (l) yields brown fumes with pieces of copper foil. (2) If 
a fresh solution of iron sulfate be poured upon a small amount of nitric 
acid in a test tube to which one-third its volume of sulfuric acid has been 
added, a brown ring will form at the surface of the nitric acid. The mix- 
ture of nitric and sulfuric acid should be cooled before adding the iron 
sulfate. 
Effects. 
These acids attack the mouth, pharynx, esophagus and stomach in- 
stantly; and remedies must be immediately administered. One fluid 
drachm c. c.) will probably cause death, and even 3 drops of concen- 
trated H2SO4 may do so. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
68 
Sulfuric acid causes a brown ora black color after a time, though the 
affected membrane may be white at first. 
Hydrochloric acid also causes a white or yellowish appearance. 
Intense pain from mouth to stomach begins immediately and is follow- 
ed by vomiting. The vomited matters are acid and bloody and contain 
shreds of mucus. The mucus and blood may be changed to a brownish 
color by the action of acid- Vomiting may be absent. The mouth and 
throat are apt to swell so that death may occur from asphyxiation. The 
bowels are apt to be constipated. The pulse becomes feeble and the skin 
cold and clammy. Collapse may occur and end in death within a few 
hours. 
Nitric acid leaves a yellow stain to the lips and mouth. 
Magnesia or chalk suspended in water, baking soda, lime water, soap 
or wall plaster may be used. With sulfuric acid an abundance of cold 
water will be beneficial. Soda or chalk produces a gas (CO2) which dis- 
tends the stomach, and magnesia is therefore preferable. 
Treatment. 
The remedy must be given immediately and in sufficient quantities. 
Lives have been saved by scraping plaster from the wall and administering 
it with water. Follow the antidote with mucilaginous drinks to soothe the 
irritation. Flax seed tea, gum arabic in water, or flour paste will serve this 
purpose. Do not use stomach pump or cause vomiting. 
ORGANIC ACIDS, 
Acetic, oxalic, hydrocyanic and carbolic acids are the most common 
organic acids which have caused death by poisoning. Carbolic acid 
(phenol) is, strictly speaking, not an acid, but is taken up here because of 
the common use of the name. 
This acid is poisonous only when concentrated and may then be recog- 
nized by its odor which is the same as that of vinegar. 
ACETIC ACID. 
Treatment. 
For acetic acid the treatment is the same as that for mineral acids. 
OXALIC ACID. 
Oxalic acid is a white crystalline substance, usually used in solution in 
water for removing ink stains, cleaning brass, etc. It is sometimes called 
salts of lemon—a misleading name. It has a sour taste and reddens litmus 
paper. 
(1) With calcium chlorid solution it forms a white precipitate, soluble 
in HCI, but insoluble in acetic acid. (2) With H2SO4 and heat this acid 
decomposes into CO and CO2 which pass off with effervescence; most other 
organic compounds char when so treated. 
Test. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMSTRY. 
69 
Effects. 
Oxalic acid and its acid salt of potassium are similar in effects and treat- 
ment. They act as corrosive, as irritant and as neurotic poisons,—effects 
varying according to amounts and dilution. Four grams (60 grains) have 
caused death; while in other cases more was taken and the patient recovered. 
The mucous membrane from mouth to stomach is corroded, causing a burn- 
ing sensation; vomiting is apt to occur, and the vomit may be bloody; pulse 
becomes slower and finally imperceptible; stupor follows which may end in 
death. The symptoms vary, but the burning sensations and stupor are fre- 
quent. Death may occur in a few minutes, or it may be delayed for days. 
If the acid is dilute, cramps and numbness are both marked. 
Treatment. 
Precipitated chalk, lime or magnesia in milk or mucilaginous drinks 
given freely. Scrapings from wall plaster may be used in emergency. The 
mucilaginous drinks soothe the irritation. Emetics may be given after a 
time if no vomiting occurs. Use as little water as possible. The alkaline 
carbonates should not be used for the alkaline oxalates are as poisonous as 
the acid itself. They, as well as the acid, affect the nervous system pro- 
ducing stupor or even collapse. 
This acid and potassium cyanid may be considered together. The acid 
is a volatile liquid. Potassium cyanid is a white solid in powder or lumps. 
The latter is the more common; used as an insecticide, in manufacturing, etc. 
HYDROCYANIC ACID. (PRUSSIC ACID.) HCN. 
Tests. 
The acid gives a peach-blossom odor, is very volatile, reddens litmus 
feebly, forms white precipitate with silver nitrate, and is soluble in HCI. 
The salt in solution responds to these tests as it decomposes and forms the 
acid by standing. 
It is a neurotic poison and acts very rapidly; one grain (.06 gram) may 
be fatal. A feeling of constriction in the throat, nausea and vomiting 
sometimes occur. Giddiness and confusion of sight rapidly set in and the 
person is apt to fall into convulsions. The mouth may be covered with 
foam, the eyes glassy and the pupils dilated. Convulsions do not always 
occur, as some fall lifeless almost at once. The respiration centers are, 
probably most affected as respiration is peculiar,—the expiration being pro- 
longed and the inspiration shortened. Hydrocyanic acid also affects the 
blood, preventing absorption of oxygen. 
Effects. 
Treatment. 
Dash cold water in the face, cause ammonia vapor to be inhaled, arti- 
ficial respiration. Use stomach pump or emetic as quickly as possible. 
Though commonly called an acid, phenol is an alcohol; its corrosive 
action is, however, much like that of strong acids. It is a white, crystalline 
Carbolic Acid. (Phenol.) CePUOH. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
substance when pure; but is usually a colorless or brownish liquid owing to 
impurities. Glycerol is often added to preserve it in liquid form. 
Tests. 
Its peculiar odor is easily recognized. With dilute ferric-chloride it 
forms a violet color. 
Effects. 
Six grams, (90 grains) have caused death. Fifteen grams, (231.5 
grains) have proved fatal in a majority of cases. A poisonous dose is fol- 
lowed by burning sensations, pallor with clammy sweat followed by uncon- 
sciousness. Vomiting may occur but is not so common as with mineral 
acids. The pupils are contracted and the breathing noisy and difficult. 
The poison causes paralysis of the respiratory centers. Death may occui 
in a few minutes or after Bor 10 hours. If urine is passed it is usually dark 
colored. Death with above symptoms may occur from application to the 
skin and absorption into the circulation; or by strong solutions too freely used 
as an antiseptic. A five percent solution injected into the vagina after 
childbirth caused the death of a woman. 
Treatment. 
Use stomach pump, unless there is too great destruction of mucous 
membrane, in which case use emetic of 2 grams zinc sulfate (30 grains), or 
of mustard and water. Oil or mucilaginous drinks may sooth the irritation 
of the mucous membrane. Prevent collapse by use of stimulants such as 
aromatic spirits of ammonia,—30 drops to half a glass of water. Brand}" is 
also recommended in such cases by Blythe. In absence of stomach pump 
or temporarily of emetic, oils or mucilaginous drinks may dilute the poison 
and delay its absorption, but must soon be removed or serious results may 
not be avoided. 
ALKALIS. 
The hydroxids of sodium (caustic soda), potassium (caustic potash), 
and ammonium, and their carbonates, are usually called alkalis, and are 
corrosive poisons. The hydroxid of ammonia is a gas usually dissolved in 
water; the others are white solids. Concentrated lye, common lye and 
washing soda are alkaline carbonates. 
The alkalis turn litmus blue, have a soapy feeling and rapidly corrode 
the epidermis when they come in contact with it. Ammonium compounds 
yield the odor of ammonia gas when heated with potassium hydroxid. 
Sodium compounds are recognized by the yellow color imparted to a flame; 
potassium compounds by the violet color. It is usually necessary to view 
the latter with a blue glass as the yellow color imparted by sodium impuri- 
ties present is apt to conceal the violet colors. 
Tests. 
Effects. 
The corrosive effects have been already mentioned. Forty grains,. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
71 
(2.6 grams) of KOH have been fatal. NaOH is less active or energetic,, 
but half an ounce (15 grams) of either would probably be fatal. NH4OH is 
even more energetic than either of these. 
The ammonia acts upon the respiration besides acting directly upon the 
tissues. Ammonia expels oxygen from the blood, acts upon haemoglobin 
and destroys blood corpuscles. It may affect the air passages and cause 
death in a very few minutes. 
Alkalis produce a burning pain from mouth to stomach, vomiting, and 
an increase of saliva. The vomited matter frequently contains altered 
mucus and blood. The tongue and fauces become swollen and the mucous 
membrane of the mouth and tongue are corroded, leaving a white, spongy 
surface, easily scraped off. There is frequently a hoarse cough and the 
swollen condition of the mouth and throat may make breathing difficult. 
The skin becomes cold and moist. There is usually diarrhoea, accompanied 
by great pain in the abdomen. 
Stricture of the esophagus sometimes occurs long after the patient re- 
covers from the immediate effects of the poison. 
The odor of ammonia on the breath, or strong alkaline character of the 
vomit as shown by litmus paper, or the soapy feeling, would aid in deter- 
mining the character of the poison. 
Treatment. 
Do not use the stomach pump or emetic. Give dilute vinegar or lemon 
juice freely. As in acids, the antidotes must be administered promptly. 
These should be followed by oil or mucilaginous drinks. Stimulate to pre- 
vent collapse, if it is indicated. 
MINERAL POISONS. 
The mineral salts and oxids of minerals are, many of them, virulent 
poisons. 
ARSENOUS OXID, AS2O3. 
Arsenous oxid, called arsenic, ratsbane or arsenous anhydrid, is fre- 
quently taken by accident or design. It is a white, odorless and nearly 
tasteless powder. Paris green and London purple are compounds of arsenic 
as is also Schweinfurth’s green. Realgar and orpiment are sulfids of arsenic. 
A mixture of arsenous iodid and mercuric iodid, known as Donovan’s solu 
tion, is poisonous. Fowler’s solution is made of arsenous oxid and potas- 
sium carbonate. “Rough on Rats” contains arsenous oxid. 
Tests. 
Dissolve in HCI, add water and pass H2S gas through a portion; a yel- 
low precipitate results. 
Put another portion in an apparatus for generating hydrogen, which has 
a jet of hydrogen burning before the solution is introduced; a porcelain 
dish held in the flame will receive a grayish-black deposit of metallic ar- PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
72 
senic. If the evolution tube be heated while the gas containing arsenic is 
being liberated, a dark ring will form. This is known as Marsh’s test. 
If the tube be taken off and the dark ring heated in a current of air or 
oxygen a cloud of white oxid of arsenic will form in the cooler part of the 
the tube and an examination with a magnifying glass will show the beauti- 
ful octahedral crystals of arsenous oxid. 
The smallest fatal dose of arsenous oxid is .13 grams (2 grains). Death 
has occurred within two hours; it generally occurs in from twelve to thirty- 
six hours. Arsenic may produce death by application to ulcers or eruptions 
of any kind, or by injection into the vagina. 
Effects. 
The symptoms are those of an irritant and neurotic, and vary much. 
Blythf recognizes four distinct forms of arsenical poisoning. 
Acute Form.—Nausea, vomiting of food and even blood, diarrhoea, 
coldness of extremities, pulse small, patient sinks in collapse and dies within 
twenty-four hours. 
Sub-acute Form.—Symptoms similar to above but less violent. Scanti- 
ness and high color of urine noticeable. Irregular heart action, troubled 
respiration and cramps in the legs. Death may be delayed several days. 
This is the most common form. 
The Nervous Form.—This form shows paresis, delirium or convulsions 
while the ordinary vomiting and diarrhoea may be absent. 
This results from absorption, or small doses continually repeated. The 
patient may simply be in ill health having loss of appetite, feebleness and 
an inflamed condition of the nasal passages, as if from a cold. Skin erup- 
tion is apt to appear, and hyperaesthesia, or its opposite, paresis, may oc- 
cur. The symptoms are so varied that they alone will hardly enable one to 
ascertain their cause. The stomach is, however, almost invariably inflamed. 
Chronic Form. 
Treatment. 
Freshly prepared hydroxid of iron is the best antidote. The tincture 
of chloride of iron can be mixed with enough ammonia water to precipi- 
tate the reddish-brown hydroxid; filtered or strained by a piece of muslin, 
the precipitate having been washed with a little water is given freely and 
as quickly as possible. Cause vomiting soon afterward. 
Milk or white of eggs will hinder the absorption and if followed by an 
emetic will remove a large part of any arsenic which may be in the stom- 
ach. This is true, also, of any metallic poisons which is apt to be taken. 
Allay irritation by the use of oils or mucilaginous drinks. 
Compounds of Antimony. 
Tartar emetic (potassium antimony tartrate,) and antimony chlorid 
are the compounds most apt to be met with in practice. The antimony 
chlorid is a strong corrosive. The wine of antimony is made by dissolving 
10 grains (.75 grams) of tartar emetic in an ounce of sherry wine. PHYSIOLOGICAL, CHEMISTRY. 
73 
These compounds dissolve in concentrated HCI. but the dilute acid 
gives a white precipitate of the basic salts of antimony. Tartar dis- 
solves in water, but not in alcohol. Hydrogen sulphid passed into a pure 
solution not too strongly acid gives an orange precipitate. Marsh’s test 
shows a black deposit, which with gives an orange color, instead 
of yellow given by arsenic. 
Tests. 
Effects. 
Tartar emetic produces nausea, vomiting,purging and pain in the stom- 
ach. If a fatal dose is taken, the urine is suppressed, the temperature 
falls; difficult respiration, spasms and delirium may occur. 
Antimony chlorid (butter of antimony; produces inflammation and 
corrosion of the lining of the alimentary canal. A feeling of nausea accom- 
panied by great pain and burning sensations followed by great prostration 
results. 
Assist vomiting with tepid water, give strong tea freely, or one-half 
drachm (a teaspoonful) of tannin in warm water. Milk or magnesia and 
water should be given in addition, when chlorid of antimony has been 
taken. 
Treatment. 
Copper Compounds. 
Copper sulfate (blue vitriol or blue stone,) and copper sub-acetate, 
(verdigris,) are the only copper compounds apt to be taken as a poison. 
The former is blue in color and is usually in large crystals; the latter is 
greenish and in a powder or small masses. 
These compounds of copper are soluble in water. If excess of ammo- 
nia be added to a solution of a copper salt, a deep blue color results. 
gives with a copper salt a black precipitate insoluble in dilute hydrochloric 
acid. 
Tests. 
Effects. 
Pain in the epigastrium, vomiting—the vomited matter is apt to be 
green or blue—and diarrhoea are the first symptoms. Jaundice frequently 
occurs, if life is sufficiently prolonged. Stupor and coma or cramps and 
paralysis may precede death. Seven and seven-tenths grams (120 grains) 
is a fatal dose. 
Treatment. 
Encourage vomiting by use of warm water, giving milk and white of 
eggs or baking soda. Allay irritation by oils or mucilaginous drinks. 
Lead Compounds. 
Lead acetate (sugar of lead,) lead nitrate, and lead carbonate (white 
lead,) are all poison. The first two compounds are white crystals, soluble 
in water; the last is commonly used for white paint and is in chalky masses. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
74 
Tests. 
The acetate and nitrate of lead dissolve in water from which may be 
precipitated (i) yellow lead iodid by potassium iodid,(2) the yellow chro- 
mate by potassium chromate,and [3] a white sulfate by sulfuric acid. The 
carbonate may be readily dissolved in nitric acid, excess of acid evaporated; 
and after dissolving in water, tested as above. 
Effects. 
Acute Poisoning is most common with the acetate, but a large dose is 
necessary. Twenty-eight grams have been taken without causing death, 
while several smaller doses are apt to cause severe illness and may prove fa- 
tal. The symptoms of acute lead poisoning are a metallicdaste in the mouth, 
burning sensation anddrynessof the mouth and throat, and vomiting which 
usually occurs within fifteen minutes. There is pain in the abdomen and a 
sense of constriction at the pit of the stomach. Constipation is the rule, 
but in rare cases purging occurs. 
Chronic poisoning may occur among painters by absorption of lead 
poison from paint, or among those using water conveyed through lead 
pipes, 01 in any case wheie even a small amount of lead is frequently taken 
into the system. It produces a blue line or spots on the gums, emaciation, 
pallid complexion, secretions lessened obstinate constipation and colicky 
pains. 
Treatme7it. 
For acute poisoning give Epsom salts (magnesium sulfate), or Glauber’s 
salts (sodium sulfate), followed by an emetic. If no other remedy is at 
hand milk or white of eggs followed by an emetic will be serviceable. For 
chronic lead poisoning, remove the source of the poison, keeping the excre- 
tory oigans active and inducing the patient to drink water freely, is the 
only treatment that can be recommended. 
MERCURY COMPOUNDS. 
Mercuric chlorid (corrosive sublimate) and mercurous chlorid (calomel) 
are the compounds by which mercury poisoning has occurred. The first is 
a white, crystalline substauce, soluble in water; the second is almost insol- 
uble in water but dissolves sufficiently in the digestive fluids to be to some 
constitutions poisonous even in few grain doses. Mercurial ointments may 
cause death from absorption. 
Tests. 
Soluble compounds of mercury give (1) a black precipitate with H2S; 
(2) a bright scarlet with potassium iodid; (3) when acidulated and placed 
on a copper foil leave a silvery spot. The calomel may be recognized by 
its insolubility in dilute HCI, and by its black color when moistened with 
ammonium sulfid. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
75 
Effects. 
Three grains (.2 grams) of corrosive sublimate have destroyed life; five 
grains is probably a fatal dose in an average case. Death is apt to occur in 
from two to six days. This poison is a corrosive and produces intense 
burning pains from mouth to stomach, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea with 
bloody stools, and a swelling of the abdomen. The lips and tongue are 
white and shrivelled. Death results from collapse. Many smaller doses 
may produce chronic poisoning resulting in depression, hectic fever symp- 
toms and salivation, often with swollen gums and salivary glands. Calomel 
is not corrosive but causes salivation and many other symptoms of corrosive 
sublimate. In large doses it is an irritant poison. 
Free use of milk, white of eggs, or flour paste, followed by vomiting 
may remove the poison in time to save life. In chronic poisoning, the 
treatment must depend on the symptoms, after the source of the poison has 
been removed. Potassium iodid is said to destroy compounds made by 
mercury with the tissues and is therefore used in chronic poisoning. 
Treatment. 
SILVER COMPOUNDS. 
Silver nitrate (lunar causitc) is used for cauterizing, for indelible ink 
and in photography. It is a powerful corrosive. 
Soluble in water, it is precipitated by common salt forming the white 
chlorid which is insoluble in nitric acid, soluble in ammonia and turns dark 
in the sunlight. It also forms a red precipitate with potassium chromate. 
Tests. 
Effects. 
Silver nitrate corrodes the mucous membrane, produces vomiting, di- 
arrhoea and convulsions. 
Treatment. 
Give freely a solution of common salt and produce vomiting. Allay 
irritation. Although silver nitrate is corrosive, vomiting is necessary as the 
chlorid is liable to be absorbed in poisonous quantities. 
ZINC COMPOUNDS. 
Zine sulfate (white vitriol), and zinc chlorid are soluble salts of zinc 
which are poisonous. The sulfate is a mild irritant, while the chlorid is a 
powerful one. The former is used for an emetic in one scruple (1.25 g.) 
doses; the latter is a good disinfectant. 
Tests. 
Dissolved in water (1) ammonium sulfid produces with it a white pre- 
cipitate, as does also (2) ammonium carbonate and (3) ammonium hydroxid. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
76 
Effects. 
Both salts produce nausea and vomiting. Great pain in the stomach is 
caused by zinc sulfate, and great prostration also occurs. Death does not 
often occur, for the poison is usually vomited out; but when it does, it fol- 
lows collapse. The chlorid in large doses corrodes the mucous membrane, 
causing a burning sensation in the mouth and throat, and the vomiting is 
apt to be accompanied by purging, sometimes with cramps and convulsions. 
Treatment. 
Give sodium bicarbonate (cooking soda), in water, and milk or white of 
eggs- Tannin or strong tea will be useful. After any of the above have 
been freely given, cause vomiting. 
COMPOUNDS OF TIN, BISMUTH, CHROMIUM AND IRON. 
These compounds are not apt to be taken in poisonous doses, yet they 
may be. 
Treatment. 
Magnesia is an antidote for any except bismuth, for which no antidote 
is known. Vomiting should be used in poisoning from these substances. 
POTASSIUM COMPOUNDS. 
Potassium nitrate (saltpeter), potassium sulfate and potassium bitar- 
trate (cream of tartar) have caused death, acting as irritant poisons. 
Treatment. 
No antidote is known. Vomiting must be produced as soon as possible. 
Demulcent drinks will be found useful to allay the irritation. 
BARIUM COMPOUNDS. 
Barium compounds are rarely accessible, but the chlorid, acetate and 
nitrate are poisonous. 
Sodium sulfate (Glauber’s salts) or magnesium sulfate (epsom salts) 
should be administered and vomiting produced. 
Treatment. 
TESTS. 
To a solution of stannous chlorid add a few drops of a solution of mer- 
curic chlorid; the stannous chlorid will reduce the mercuric to mercurous 
chlorid and precipitate calomel. The reduction may be carried so far that 
some metallic mercury is produced. The precipitate is white or gray. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMSTRY. 
77 
To another portion of a solution of stannous chlorid add a solution of 
H2S and a dark brown precipitate is produced. 
To a third portion in which HCI is present, add a few drops of concen- 
trated nitric acid and boil. Divide into two parts and repeat the tests tried 
above. Explain. 
Dissolve a small amount of bismuth sub-nitrate in a little concentrated 
HCI; add water until a white precipitate appears. It is produced by the 
change of the Bids to BiOCl by reaction with the H2O. Dissolve again 
and add H2S; note the black precipitate of Bi2Sg. 
To a solution of a chromium compound add silver nitrate; a brown- 
ish red precipitate of silver chromate results. 
To another portion of the chromium compound in solution add a solu- 
ble lead salt; note the formation of a yellow precipitate of lead chromate. 
To a solution of an iron salt add ammonium hydroxid; a reddish-brown 
precipitate of iron hydroxid is formed. Add hydrochloric acid and heat, 
then add a few drops of nitric acid; with potassium ferrocyanid a deep blue 
precipitate will be formed. 
A potassium compound gives a violet color to a flame; it will also 
form a yellow precipitate with platinic chlorid. 
To a solution of barium chlorid add a few drops of HCI and make the 
flame test. Note the yellowish-green color of the flame. To another por- 
tion add dilute sulfuric acid, a white precipitate of barium sulfate is formed. 
PHOSPHORUS. 
This is a common ingredient of rat poisons. Many children have been 
poisoned from sucking the ends of matches. Phosphorus paste is extremely 
poisonous. 
Phosphorus is recognized by distilling, after addition of sulphuric acid, 
and in a dark room when it is shown by its phosphorescence. 
Tests. 
The immediate effects are vomiting, often of bloody matter, sometimes 
of matter luminous in the dark. The breath may have the odor of garlic, 
diarrhoea may be present or abse?it and there is great prostration. 
Effects. 
These symptoms may pass off and after a day, or even longer, other 
symptoms develope. The skin becomes yellow (jaundiced), and extravasa- 
tions occur. The liver becomes enlarged and the urine scanty, containing 
albumen and often leucin and tyrosin. The symptoms vary considerably— 
sometimes hemorrhage at other times delirium and convulsions occur. 
Death may not occur for several days. 
Treatment. 
There is no satisfactory antidote. Magnesia in water is recommended, 
with white of egg. French turpentine is supposed to be beneficial. In any 
case, cause vomiting as soon as possible. Do not give oil. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
78 
lODIN AND ITS COMPOUNDS. 
The tincture of iodin and iodid of potassium have been known to pro 
duce death. 
Treatment. 
Give freely starch paste and water. 
GASES. 
Chlorin. 
This is a yellowish-green gas of suffocating odor and very irritating to 
the air passages. It is used in chemical experiments and sometimes in the 
arts. 
This gas is the result of the incomplete combustion of coal, especially 
in hard coal stoves and charcoal burners. It acts on blood corpuscles. 
Carbo?i Mon-oxid, {stovegas). 
This gas emanates from caves, wells and mines, is a product of fires 
and a constituent of the air exhaled by animals. It does not act on blood 
corpuscles, but excludes oxygen and causes suffocation. 
Carbon Di-oxid {choke da?np.) 
Sulphuretted Hydrogen. 
This is a poison which affects the blood, reducing the haemoglobin. It 
is found in sewer gas, rotten eggs, and is used in chemical laboratories. 
Illuminating Gas. 
This gas is a mixture of carbon mon-oxid, marsh gas and other consti- 
tuents. 
Treatment. 
Fresh, pure air, dashes of cold water on the face, artificial respiration 
and, inhalation of ammonia vapor. 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL IRRITANTS- 
Aloes, jalap, croton oil, castor oil seeds, poke berries, wild parsnip, 
oleander, marsh marigold, cantharides, laburnum and black hellebore are 
irritants and liable to produce death. Oil of savin, oil of tansy and the 
leaves or berries of the yew are irritants which are supposed to produce 
abortion, but more frequently produce irritation of the intestines liable to 
end in death. 
After vomiting, coffee may be useful with mucilaginous drinks to allay 
irritation. Most of these poisons produce irritation in the intestines and 
are apt to cause purging; this is especially true of croton oil. The treat- 
ment should be such as to relieve the irritation and its effects. 
Treatment. 
POISONOUS FISH- 
There are several kindsof such fish, as conger eel, bladder fish, gray PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
79 
snapper, and some mussels, which are poisonous. The chief effects 
are those of simple irritants—vomiting, diarrhoea, depression of the pulse 
and sometimes a nettle rash. 
Treatment. 
Emetics, followed by emollients. The diarrhoea can be reached 
by keeping the bowels open. Emollient enemata and fomentations of the 
abdomen are recommended by Tanner. 
POISONOUS MEAT 
Meat of animals which have died of disease and meats, cheese, etc., 
which have begun to putrefy have caused serious symptoms and even death. 
Tbe putrefaction, of flesh causes the formation of ptomaines which are ex- 
tremely poisonous. Changes in conditions under which putrefaction occurs 
makes a difference in the compounds formed, which accounts for the fact 
that far more serious results occur in some cases than in others. 
Tyrotoxicon may he formed in ice cream, salads or any food composed 
chiefly of milk and egg. It is extremely common. 
Effects. 
These poisons cause nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea. Sometimes there 
are symptoms similar to those of pneumonia. 
Treatment. 
Cause vomiting if too great time has not elapsed. Increase the action 
of the bowels, and counteract the prostration which is apt to result from the 
poison. 
TRICHINOSIS 
Trichinae are minute, round worms which sometimes infest pork and 
which, after being eaten by human beings, penetrate to the muscles and 
encyst. According to Hughes there are three stages; 
The intestinal stage is marked by a gastro-intestinal inflammation, with 
nausea, vomiting and watery diarrhoea, the severity depending upon the 
number of parasites ingested. 
The migration stage shows a typhoid-like fever, rapid, feeble pulse, pro- 
fuse sweats, intense thirst, dry tongue and lips, red swollen face, with sore- 
ness and tenderness of the muscular structure, increased by any muscular 
act. The mind is apt to be clear but apathetic. 
The encapsulation stage. If the number of parasites ingested has been 
few, recovery may occur in this stage; but if the number has been large, the 
gastro-enteritis, fever and muscular phenomena are severe. Twenty to fifty 
per cent, of cases are fatal. 
The parasites may be killed by thoroughly cooking the meat. There is 
little chance of destroying them after they enter the system. After migra- 
tion has begun nourishing food and quiet may be useful. 
Treatment. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
80 
Vegetable Neurotic Poisons. 
The gummy substance called opium is obtained from the unripe pods 
of the poppy, but its poisonous properties are chiefly due to an alkaloid 
called morphine. Godfrey’s powders, Dover’s powders, laudanum, pare- 
goric and many soothing syrups, Dalby’s carminative, and other prepara- 
tions, contain the same substance. Some people, and especially young 
children, are ver}' susceptible to its action and a small amount may produce 
symptoms of poisoning. 
Giddiness, drowsiness and stupor are caused by a large dose. The pa- 
tient sinks into a state resembling that of a sleep. The breathing becomes 
slow and noisy, and the pulse, which was full at first, becomes weak. The 
pupils become contracted, but may expand before death. Vomiting some- 
times occurs, but frequently it is not followed by the results hoped. The 
bowels are usually constipated. In the earlier stages the patient may be 
aroused by loud noises or shaking, which fact differentiates opium poison- 
ing from epilepsy. 
Effects. 
Remove the poison from the stomach by stomach pump or vomiting. 
Stimulate by dashes of cold water, mechanically, and by strong coffee. 
Electricity has been recommended. Fresh air in abundance is necessary 
and the patient must be as thoroughly roused as possible. 
Treatment. 
These are colorless and volatile liquids which produce insensibility by 
inhalation. They are apt to produce slight stimulation at first, excitement 
and incoherence and finally complete insensibility. 
Chloroform and Ether. 
Treatment. 
Fresh air, dashes of cold water and artificial respiration. 
This is too well known to need description. In many cases it pro- 
duces acute poisoning, and forms of chronic effects are numerous. 
Alcohol. 
In acute poisoning the person becomes insensible, the face usually 
flushed and the pupils dilated. Care should be taken to distinguished be- 
tween intoxication and apoplexy or concussion of the brain. The smell of 
alcohol on the breath should not be regarded as sufficient evidence that the 
case is one of intoxication only. 
Effects. 
Treatment. 
Apply cold water to the head after removing the poison from the 
stomach. Coffee or aromatic spirits of ammonia are usually administered 
internally. 
These may produce an intoxicating effect and should be treated as 
alcoholic intoxication is. 
Nilro-benzene, Aniline and Camphor. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
81 
Mushrooms. 
These may produce the symptoms of pure intoxication, or they may 
produce effects similar to gastro intestinal catarrh and a disordered condi- 
tion of the nervous system. There is no good rule by which one may de- 
tect poisonous mushrooms; one must be familiar with the species. 
This is an alkaloid found in Atropa belladonna and contained in the 
preparation given as a medicine called belladonna. It is also found in 
Datura stramonium [Jimson weed,] and Datura alba, a plant growing in In- 
dia. The seeds of the last named are sometimes mistaken for those of red 
pepper and have been frequently administered with food to enable the na 
tives to rob a traveler. 
Airopin (daturin,) C17H23 NO3. 
Effects. 
Very small doses may be fatal and in a very short time. The first sen- 
sation is usually a dryness in the throat. The muscles of the pharynx are 
apt to contract spasmodically. Nausea and vomiting may occur and the 
pupils are much dilated. Vision is indistinct or double. The skin is dry 
and may be covered with a scarlet rash. There is usually delirium follow- 
ed by stupor. The action of the heart is affected, the terminations of the 
vagus in the heart muscles being first excited, then paralyzed. The delir- 
ium in adults is frequently manifested by a disposition to talk much and to 
see objects at which the patient picks. The active delirium may pass into 
coma and end in death. 
The stomach pump or emetics, castor oil and animal charcoal, are rec- 
ommended by Tanner. Five drops of laudanum every quarter of an hour 
is recommended by Walker. Blythe would inject one-fifth of a grain of 
pilocarpin from time to time. The laudanum may counteract the delirium, 
but its use is to be guarded. 
Treatment. 
Hyoscyamus [henbane]. 
This is similar in its action, in many respects, to atropin. It produces 
giddiness and dilates the pupils,'but it produces perspiration instead of dry- 
ness of the skin. Delirium is absent if vomiting occurs. It is less apt to 
be fatal than atropin. 
Treatment. 
Stomach pump or emetics and increased action of the bowels. 
Solanin [nightshade, ] 
This is similar in its action to the poison last described. It is obtain- 
ed from the berries or leaves of “bitter-sweet” and the k nightshade.” The 
treatment is the same as for hyoscyamus. 
Cocaine. 
This is obtained from Erythroxylon coca, a shrub of South America. 
It is much used as a local anaesthetic and as a medicine. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
82 
Effects. 
Five grains taken internally may produce symptoms of poisoning. It 
affects the heart and lungs, the pulse becoming rapid and intermittent, res- 
piration slow and feeble. It is classed as a deliriant and the treatment is 
the same as for the other deliriants. 
Nvx Vomica. 
This, and the alkaloids which are obtained from it, strychnin and brucin 
are neurotic poisons producing convulsions. The action on the spinal cord 
causes the convulsions. The brain is unaffected, as the patient may be con- 
scious until death. Strychnin is more frequently used in medicine and in 
poison for vermin, hence is most liable to be taken accidentally or with 
suicidal intent in poisonous doses. The convulsions, or a highly excitable 
condition of the nervous system is always present. There is a stiffness 
the neck and jerking movements of the muscles, a sense of suffocation 
and difficulty of breathing. The patient is apt to be conscious of approach- 
ing convulsions and call out to those about him. As death approaches the 
tetanic spasms closely succeed each other until the patient is no longer able 
to survive them. 
Treatment. 
Remove the poison as in case of other neurotic poisons and quiet the 
convulsions by laudanum. The greatest care should be taken to avoid any 
noise, quick motions, or anything to excite the patient. Chloroform may 
be used to counteract the convulsions, care being taken not to administer 
too much. If convulsions have begun it may be impossible to use the 
stomach pump. 
Curare, the Cat ah ar Bean and Coniun {hemlock). 
These are poisons which cause paralysis of the motor nerves. Curare par- 
alyzes the sensory nerves first; the others, the motor nerves only. The hem- 
lock (conium maculatum), is the only one found in the United States. The 
calabar bean grows in Africa; curare is from a plant which grows in South 
America and was used by the natives to poison arrow heads. It is more 
poisonous when introduced directly into the blood than when taken directly 
into the stomach. In the latter case it is excreted with sugar in the urine. 
The calabar bean contracts the pupil of the eye. 
After removing the poison from the stomach, resort to artificial respir- 
ation, as death is caused by paralysis of the muscles of respiration and of 
the heart. Few cases of poisoning have occurred; but some have been kept 
alive by artificial respiration until the effect of the poison disappeared suf- 
ficiently to allow respiration to go on unaided. Some give hypodermically, 
one-sixtieth grain doses of atropin to counteract the effects of the calabar 
bean; others give chloral in ten grain doses. 
Treatment. 
Aconite. 
This is a very deadly poison, one-fiftieth of a grain having caused ser- PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY 
83 
ious illness. Aconitin is the alkaloidal base. Several plants native to 
Europe and Asia contain the poison. 
Effects. 
Heat, numbness and tingling in the mouth are noticeable. Giddiness 
and loss of muscular power are marked symptoms of aconite poisoning 
The pupils dilate, the skin becomes cold and the heart’s action is impeded. 
It resembles curare in that the nerve terminations, rather than the centers, 
are paralyzed. The sufferer may remain conscious, loss of action of invol- 
untary muscles may follow, causing syncope which may end in death. 
Remove poison by stomach pump or vomiting. Give castor oil or 
charcoal. Strong coffee may be useful. Keep up the action of the heart 
and lungs by artificial respiration. 
Treatment. 
This poison, containing the alkaloid gelsemine, is a motor depres- 
sant, affecting the spinal cord. Poisonous doses produce vertigo, double 
vision, dilated pupils, slow and feeble heart, labored respiration, anaesthesia, 
diaphoresis and staggering gait. Death is caused by the paralysis of the 
muscles of respiration. 
Gehemium. 
Remove the poison from the stomach, stimulate the action of the heart 
and muscles of respiration by artificial means. 
Treatment. 
Digitalis, Nicotine, Colchicum and Veiatrum (white hellebore.} 
These poisons are all heart depressants. Of these, digitalis is more 
frequently used and is more apt to be taken accidentally or by design. It 
causes vomiting, purging, headache, great slowness and irregularity of pulse, 
great weakness, convulsions, coma and death. The symptoms vary consid- 
erably, but its action on the heart is always present. 
For digitalis give emetics and tannin or strong tea. Strong coffee or oth- 
er stimulants may be needed to lessen depression. The treatment for others 
named in this connection is similar, except that castor oil may be used 
instead of tannin. 
Treatment. 
Rattlesnake Bite. 
The bites of poisonous reptiles such as rattle-snakes, water moccasin, 
and others, cause paralysis by action on the centers of respiration. 
Treatment. 
Suck the poison from the wound immediately. The poison is not dan- 
gerous if accidently swallowed, as it is destroyed by the digestive fluids. 
Aromatic spirits of ammonia (2 drams to one and one-half ounces of water) 
or brandy are usually given to stimulate respiration until the poison is eli- 
minated. Potassium iodid in 20 grain dosesds perhaps the best remedy. For 
stings and bites of insects ammonia is the best remedy ;but soap,sodaor any 
alkaline substance, gives relief, as the irritant is usually an acid. 84 
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. M 
SOLUTIONS FOR URINALYSIS AND PHYSIOLOGICAL CHPIM- 
ISTRY. 
Acid, Sulfuric, (concentrated.)— Commercial; or chemically pure is 
sometimes required. 
Acid, Sulfuric, (dilute)— One part of above to 4 parts of distilled 
water. 
Acid, Nitric, (con,)—Strong commercial, unless c. p. is required. 
Acid, Nitric, (dilute)— One part of above to 4 parts of distilled water. 
Acid, Hydrochloric, (con.)— The c. p. is usually required, commercial 
may sometimes be used. 
Acid, Hydrochloric, (dilute)—One part of above with 4 parts distilled 
water. 
Acid, Acetic.—One part of glacial with 4 parts of distilled water. 
Ammonium Hydroxid, (ammonia water)— One part strong to 3 parts 
water. Should be free from CO2 gas. 
Ammonium Carbonate.—One part powdered crystals in 5 parts dilute 
ammonia water. 
Ammonium Chlorid,—One part pure crystals in ten parts water. 
Ammonium Molybdate,—Three g. crystals in 20 c.c. water pour into 20 
c.c. of strong nitric acid. Warm to 40°, (not above) and let settle. 
Ammonium Oxalate,—One part of crystals dissolved in 20 parts water. 
Make in small quantities; it does not keep well. 
Ammonium Sulphid,—Dilute strong ammonia water with equal volume 
of distilled water. Saturate 3-5 of this mixture with H2S, add re- 
mainder of mixture and stir. 
Barium Chlorid—One part of crystals to ten parts water. 
Calcium Hydroxid,—-Slake pure lime and add large excess of water. 
Pour off water after it settles and again add pure water; shake well, 
let settle and draw off clear liquid into bottle which must be kept 
tightly stoppered. 
Lead Acetate, basic—l7o g. lead acetate dissolve in 800 c.c. boiling, 
distilled water. Add 120 g. yellow lead oxid and boil for half an 
hour, keeping up water to same volume. Let cool and add previ- 
ously boiled, cold water to ioooc.c. Filter in covered funnel; keep 
well stoppered. 
Magnesia Mixture,—Dissolve 100 g. magnesium sulfate and 100 g. am- 
monium chlorid in 800 c.c. water, and add 100 c.c. strong ammonia 
water. Let stand 24 hours and filter. 
Mercuric Chlorid,—One part pure crystals to 30 parts water. 
Millon’s reagent,—Dissolve I part of mercury in 2 parts strong nitric 
acid, finally by aid of heat; cool, dilute solution with twice its vol- 
ume of water. 
Potassium Bichromate,—One past crystals to ten parts water. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
85 
Potassium Chromate,—One part crystals to ten parts water. 
Potassium F'errocyanid,—-One part crystals to 20 parts water. For 
quantitative estimation of albumen I to 10. 
Potassium Hydroxid,—One part sticks to ten parts water. 
Sodium Hydroxid,—One part of sticks (purified by alcohol) to ten 
parts water. Paraffine stoppers of bottle to prevent sticking. 
Sodium Hypo-chlorite,—7s g. chlorid of lime, rub to thin cream with 
200 c.c. water. Let settle and pour clear liquid on filter. Wash 
with 100 c.c. water, allowing entire liquid to flow into same 
vessel. Dissolve 150 g. sodium carbonate crystals in 300 c.c. water 
and pour into the other solution. Warm and stir well. Filter, and 
pour through the filter enough water to bring to 1000 c.c. Keep in 
dark. 
SOME SPECIAL SOLUTIONS. 
(1) Dissolve 69.28 g. pure copper sulfate in distilled water and make 
up to one liter. Label “Fehling’s No. I.” 
Fettling's Solution. 
(2) Dissolve 100 g. sodium hydroxid sticks in 500 c.c. water; heat to 
boiling and add 150 g. recrystallized Rochelle salts. Stir until dissolved, let 
stand 24 hours, filter through asbestos and make up to one liter. 
The sodium hydroxid should be of the grade precipitated by alcohol. 
Label “Fehling’s No. 2.” These two mixed in exactly equal parts make 
Fehling’s Solution. Do not mix until ready to use. 
This solution is made by dissolving 10.33 g. sodium hydroxid in 100 c.c. 
of water; add 2g. basic bismuth nitrate and 4g. Rochelle salts; warm and filter. 
Nylander's Solution. 
Dissolve 33.12 g. pure potassium iodid in 200 c.c. distilled water. Add 
13.54 g. powdered mercuric chlorid; warm and stir until red precipitate of 
mercuric iodid disappears leaving a clear, yellowish solution. Dilute with 
distilled water to sbout 800 c.c. and add 100 c.c. of pure, strong acetic acid. 
Allow to stand over night if not clear, and decant any precipitate that it 
may contain. Dilute then to one liter with distilled water. This solution 
contains the proportion of 4KI to HgCb. 
Tanret's Mercuric-Potassium lodid Solution. 
Esbach's Solution. 
This solution is made by dissolving 10 g. of pure picric acid and 20 g. 
of pure citric acid in a liter of distilled water. This solution must be fil- 
tered, if it is not perfectly clear. 
Dissolve 10.94 g. recrystallized copper sulfate in 83 c.c. distilled water, 
add 83 c.c. pure glycerine, then add 834 c.c. of a ten per cent solution of 
potassium hydroxid. This solution is said to be so delicate that 6or 8 
Haines' Solution. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 
86 
drops of suspected urine will give a yellow or yellowish red precipitate if 
sugar is present; and it is claimed that it will keep indefinitely. To make 
the test, heat about 4 c.c. of the solution, add a few drops of the urine and 
boil one-half minute. Red cuprous oxid is precipitated. Some contend 
that the addition of the glycerine does not perfectly preserve the solution 
APPARATUS AND ANTIDOTES FOR THE TREATMENT 
OF POISONS. 
[Recommended by Blythe.] 
1. Stomach pump 
2. Emetics: 
Sulfate of zinc, 20 grain (1. 3 gram) tablets. 
Ipecacuanha, 20 grain (1.3 gram) tablets. 
Mustard, one-half ounce (16.6 grams) to one pint (496 c. c.) water, 
thoroughly mixed. 
When vomiting cannot be produced by the above owing to the 
condition of the stomach, an injection by hypodermic syringe of a few 
drops of a two-per cent solution of apomorphin hydrochlorate will 
cause vomiting in a few minutes. 
3. Antidotes: 
1 Acetic acid or vinegar for alkalis. 
2 Calcined magnesia for acids. 
3 Tannin for alkaloids or antimony. 
4 Chloral or chloroform for convulsants. 
5 Aromatic spirits of ammonia as a stimulant. 
6 Extract of coffee as a stimulant. 
7 Dialyzed iron. The tincture of iron may be precipitated with 
ammonia and filtered for preparation of reddish precipitate of ferric 
hydroxid for arsenical poisoning, instead of dialyzed iron. 
8 French oil of turpentine for phosphorus. 
9 Castor oil as a demulcent. 
10 Brandy may be required in cased where danger of collapse ex- 
ists. It should always be remembered that white of egg, flour in water, 
milk, flax seed tea or other mucilaginous drinks may be useful in a 
large number of cases, and probably will never do any harm. 
EQUIVALENT WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
1 meter—39.37 inches. 
1 liter=33.Bi SU. S. fluid ounces. 
1 cubic centimeter=i6.22i U. S. minims. 
1 kilogram=32.isi U. S. Apoth. ounces. 
1 kilogram—3s.274 avoirdupois ounces. 
1 gram=is.432 grains. 
1 U. S. fluid ounce=29.s7 c.c. 
1 U. S. Apoth. ounce=3i.lo4 g. 
1 avoirdupois ounce=2B-349 g. 
1 grain=6479B mg. 
1 U. S. fluid ounce weighs 0.95 U. S. Apoth. ounce, xxtidiech:. 
A 
Casein xg> 
Adipocere 12 
Crystallin 20 
Collagen ~..,23, 24' 
Albumins *4, 51 
Albumins native 14-18 
Caseinogen 47 
Chondrin 24 
Albumins derived 18, 20 
Albuminoids 23 
Chondrigen 24 
Albumoses 22> 23 
Amyloid Substances 14 
Chrysophanic Acid 5 
Cane Sugar 6, 7 
Animal Gum 23 
Collodion n 
Cholin 12, 37 
Aldehyde 3 
Amylopsin 32, 33 
Cholesterin 39 
Chlorids, in Urine 58 
Aspartic Acid 33 
Acetone 56 
Casts, in Urine 62 
Antidotes 66, 67 
Acetic Acid. 68 
Calcium Oxalate, in Urine... 63 
Cystin 65 
Alkalis 7° 
Arsenous Oxid (Arsenic) 71 
Cystinuria 65 
Corrosive Poisons 66 
Antimony, Compounds 72 
Anilin 80 
Carbolic Acid.... 69 
Copper Compounds 73 
Alcohol 80 
Calomel 74 
Corrosive Sublimate 74,75 
Alcohol poisoning distinguished from 
Apoplexy 80 
Chromium, Compounds 76 
Atropin 81 
Aconite 82 
Chromium, Tests for 76, 77 
Chloroform 80 
APPARATUS AND ANTIDOTES FOR 
THE TREATMENT OF POISONS.. 86 
Camphor 80 
Cocaine 81 
B 
Curare, Calabar Bean 82 
Colchicum 83 
Barfoed’s Solution 4 
Boettger’s Test 4, 55 
D 
Boas’Reagent 3° 
Bacteria 37, 62 
Dextrose 3 
Disaccharids 2, 6-8 
Bile 38 
Dextrins 9, 10 
Doremus’ Method 60 
“ Pigments 39, 56 
“ Acids 56 
Donovan’s Solution 71 
Dover’s Powders 80 
Blood 42 
Corpuscles, Red, Number 44 
Digitalis 83 
“ Coloring matter 45 
“ Plasma 46 
Diazo Reaction 61 
E 
Bismuth, Compounds 76 
Bismuth, Tests for 76, 77 
Elements in the Human Body 2 
Barium Compounds, Tests for 76, 77 
Elastin 24, 25 
Esbach’s Method, Urinalysis 53 
Belladonna 81 
Brucin 82 
Epithelium, in Urine 62 
F 
C 
Fats 11 
Fat Globules 64, 65 
Carbohydrates 2 
Colloids 14 
Fibrins 14, 22. INDEX 
ii 
Fibrinogen 22 
Fehling’s Test, Grape Sugar 54 
Lactose 7 
h 
Fowler’s Solution 71 
Fish, Poisonous 78 
Lardacein 14 
G 
Levulose 3, 6 
Laevulinic acid 7 
Glucoses 2, 6 
Glucosazone 5 
Lecithin . 12, 39 
Leucin 22, 25, 32, 35, 36, 65 
Galactose 6 
Glycogen 10 
Lactic acid 32 
Lvsin 32 
Glycosuria 10 
Lysatin 32 
Lact-albumin 47 
Glycerol : .... 11 
Gun Cotton 11 
Lieben’s test 56 
Lipuria 64 
Globulins 20-22, 52 
Globin 22 
Lead compounds 73 
Gelatin 23, 24 
Gastric Juice .28-31 
Maltose, 7 
M 
Gunzberg’s Reagent 30 
Guanin 32 
Monosaccharids 2-6 
Gmelin’s Test 40, 56 
Mannite 6 
Myosin 21 
Gallstones 41 
Gravimetric Method, Urinalysis 53 
Myosinogen 21 
Milk 47 
Grape Sugar 53 
Grape Sugar, Tests 54 
Mercuric Potassium lodid test. Urin- 
alysis 52 
Gases 78 
Gelsemium 83 
Moore’s test, Grape Sugar 54 
Mineral acids 67 
II 
Mineral poisons 71 
Humin 7 
Hexoses 3 
Marsh’s test 72 
Mercury compounds 74 
Hypoxanthin 32 
Haemoglobin, Amount ... 45 
Meat, poisonous 79 
Mushrooms 81 
Heller’s Test, Urinalysis 52 
N 
Haine’s Test, Grape Sugar 54 
Hydrocyanic Acid, (Prussic) 69 
Nitro-celluloses IX 
Nitrogenous bodies allied to Proteids ... 23 
Hyoscyamus ( Hen bane) 81 
I 
Nylander’s solution 3 
Nylander’s test 5> 55 
Isomaltose 7 
Neuro-keratin 25 
Nuklein 32 
Introduction 2 
Inosite 6, 32 
Neuleo-proteid 32 
Neurotic poisons 66 
Indol 34, 37 
Intestinal Juice 37 
Nitrobenzene go 
lodin, Test 41 
lodin Compounds 78 
Nnx Vomica 82 
Nicotine 83 
Iron, Compounds 76 
Iron, Tests for 76, 77 
Osazones 5 
o 
Irritants, vegetable 78 
Ossein 23 
“ poisons 66 
animal 78 
Oleic acid Ix 
Organic acu’s 68 
Ketone 3 
K 
Oxalic acid 68 
Orpiment 
Keratin 25 
Opium poisoning differentiated from Epi- 
tepsy 80 INDEX 
P 
Starch g, 9 
Stearin Ix 
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY 2 
Pentoses 3 
Stearic acid Ix 
Phenylhydrazine test 5 
Polysaccharids 3 , 8-11 
Syntonin Xg; 2Q 
Saliva 25, 28 
Palmitin 11 
Palmitic acid 11 
Steapsin 32, 33 
Skatol 27 
Proteids 13 
“ classified 14 
Sulfates, Urinalysis 58 
Schwein furth ’ s green 7 x 
“ , coagulated 22 
Silver compounds 75 
Soothing syrups 1 go 
Paraglobulin 20 
Peptones 22, 23 
Solanin (Night shade) 81 
Ptyalin 26 
Pepsin .... 28 
Strychnin g2 
SOLUTIONS 84 
Pepsinogen 29 
Propepsin 29 
Solutions, special . 85 
T 
Peptic digestion 30, 31 
Pancreatic secretion 32 
Tyrosin 22, 25, 36, 37, 65 
Pancreatic digestion 33-35 
Trytophan 32 
Trypsin 32, 33 
Phenol 37 
Pettenkoffer’s test 40, 56 
Trommer’s test, Grape Sugar 54 
Tartar emetic, effects 73 
Polarimeter, Laurent’s 48 
Picric acid test, Urinalysis 53 
Tin, compounds, and tests for 76, 77 
Trichnosis 79 
Purdy’s Method, Urinalysis 53 
Phosphates, Urinalysis 57, 64 
u 
Phosphates, tests for 57 
URINALYSIS 50 
Uffelman's test for lactic acid 
Pus, corpuscles, in urine 61 
Pyuria 61 
Urea 59 
Uric acid 60, 63 
POISONS 66 
Paris Green 71 
Urine Sediment 61 
Potassium compounds 76 
Phosphorus 77 
Urates 63 
V 
Ptomaines 79 
Vitellin ...... 20 
Vegetable neurotic poisons 80 
Quantitative determination of sugar 55 
Q 
Veratrum (White Hellebore) 83 
R 
Weights and Measures, Equivalent 86 
w 
Rennin 28, 29 
Realgar 71 
X 
“Rough on Rats’’ 71 
Rattle snake bite 83 
Xanthin 32 
z 
S 
Zinc compounds 75 
Sucrose 6, 7